For followers of the religious doctrine condemned as heresy by the Roman Catholic Church, see
; singular: Πελασγός,
) was used by some
writers to refer to populations that were either the ancestors of the Greeks
or preceded the Greeks in Greece
, "a hold-all term for any ancient, primitive and presumably indigenous people in the Greek world".
In general, "Pelasgian" has come to mean more broadly all the indigenous inhabitants of the Aegean Sea region and their cultures before the advent of the Greek language.
, enclaves under that name survived in several locations of mainland Greece,
, and other regions of the
. Populations identified as "Pelasgian" spoke a language or languages that at the time Greeks identified as "barbaric
", even though some ancient writers described the Pelasgians as
. A tradition also survived that large parts of Greece had once been Pelasgian before being
. These parts generally fell within the ethnic domain that, by the 5th century BC, was attributed to those speakers of
who were identified as Ionians
Much like all other aspects of the "Pelasgians", their ethnonym (Pelasgoi
) is of extremely uncertain provenance and
. Michel Sakellariou collects fifteen different etymologies proposed for it by philologists and linguists during the last 200 years, though he admits that "most...are fanciful".
An ancient etymology based on mere similarity of sounds linked
") and postulates that the Pelasgians were migrants like storks, possibly from
, where they nest.
deals effectively with this etymology in his comedy The Birds
. One of the laws of "the storks" in the satirical
, playing upon the Athenian belief that they were originally Pelasgians, is that grown-up storks must support their parents by migrating elsewhere and conducting warfare.
derives Pelasgoi from *pelag-skoi
("flatland-inhabitants"); specifically "Inhabitants of the Thessalian plain".
He details a previous derivation, which appears in English at least as early as William Gladstone
Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age
If the Pelasgians were not Indo-Europeans, the name in this derivation must have been assigned by the Hellenes.
The ancient Greek word for "sea",
, comes from the same root, *plāk-, as the Doric word
, "side" (which is flat), appearing in
therefore simply interprets the same reconstructed form as "the sea men", where the sea is the flat.
Klein's interpretation does not require the Indo-Europeans to have had a word for "sea", which living on the inland plains (if they did) they are likely to have lacked. On encountering the sea they simply used the word for plain, "the flat". The flatlanders also could acquire what must have been to the Hellenes a
, "the sea men". Best of all, if the Egyptians of the Late Bronze Age encountered maritime marauders under this name they would have translated as
Literary analysis has been going on since
, when the writers of those times read previous works on the subject. No definitive answers were ever forthcoming by this method; rather, it served to define the problems better. The method perhaps reached a peak in the
when new methods of systematic comparison began to be applied in philology
. Typical of the era is the long and detailed study of
William Ewart Gladstone
, who among his many talents was a trained classicist.
Until further ancient texts come to light, advances on the subject cannot be made. The most likely source of progress regarding the Pelasgians continues to be archaeology and related sciences.
The Pelasgians first appear in the poems of
: those who are stated to be Pelasgians in the
are among the allies of Troy
. In the section known as the
Catalogue of Trojans
, they are mentioned between mentions of the
cities and the Thracians
of south-eastern Europe (i.e., on the Hellespontine border of Thrace
Homer calls their town or district "Larisa"
and characterises it as fertile, and its inhabitants as celebrated for their spearsmanship. He records their chiefs as Hippothous
and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus son of Teutamus, thus giving all of them names that were Greek or so thoroughly Hellenized
that any foreign element has been effaced.
, Odysseus, affecting to be Cretan himself, instances Pelasgians among the tribes in the ninety cities of
, "language mixing with language side by side".
Last on his list, Homer distinguishes them from other ethnicities on the island: "Cretans proper," Achaeans, Cydonians (of the city of Cydonia/modern Chania
), Dorians, and "noble Pelasgians."
also refers to "Pelasgic Argos",
which is most likely to be the plain of Thessaly,
and to "Pelasgic Zeus
", living in and ruling over
which must be the oracular one in Epirus
. However, neither passage mentions actual Pelasgians;
, Hellenes, and Achaeans specifically inhabit Thessaly and the Selloi are around Dodona. They all fought on the Greek side.
According to the Iliad, Pelasgians were camping out on the shore together with the following tribes,
Later Greek writers offered little unanimity over which sites and regions were "Pelasgian". One of the first was
; he calls the oracular
, identified by reference to "the oak", the "seat of Pelasgians",
clarifying Homer's Pelasgic Zeus. He mentions also that Pelasgus
(Greek: Πελασγός, the eponymous
ancestor of the Pelasgians) was the father of King Lycaon
fleeing from Egypt
seek asylum from King Pelasgus of Argos, which he says is on the Strymon including Perrhaebia in the north, the Thessalian Dodona and the slopes of the Pindus mountains on the west and the shores of the sea on the east;
that is, a territory including but somewhat larger than classical Pelasgiotis. The southern boundary is not mentioned; however, Apis is said to have come to Argos from Naupactus
implying that Argos includes all of east Greece from the north of Thessaly to the Peloponnesian Argos, where the Danaids are probably to be conceived as having landed. He claims to rule the Pelasgians and to be the "child of Palaichthon (or 'ancient earth') whom the earth brought forth".
The Danaids call the country the "Apian hills" and claim that it understands the
, and in the Dorian dialect), which many translate as "barbarian speech" but Karba (where the
live) is in fact a non-Greek word. They claim to descend from ancestors in ancient Argos even though they are of a "dark race" (melanthes ... genos
Pelasgus admits that the land was once called Apia but compares them to the women of Libya
and wants to know how they can be from Argos on which they cite descent from Io
In a lost play by Aeschylus,
, he defines the original homeland of the Pelasgians as the region around
presents Inachus, in a fragment of a missing play entitled Inachus
as the elder in the lands of Argos, the Heran
hills and among the Tyrsenoi Pelasgoi, an unusual hyphenated noun construction, "Tyrsenians-Pelasgians". Interpretation is open, even though translators typically make a decision, but Tyrsenians may well be the ethnonym Tyrrhenoi
calls the inhabitants of Argos "Pelasgians" in his play entitled Orestes
In a lost play entitled Archelaus
, he says that
, on coming to reside in the city of
), formulated a law whereby the Pelasgians were now to be called
describes the Greeks of the Trojan War as Pelasgians in his Metamorphoses
Hellanicus of Lesbos
, in Fragment 7 of the
, concerns himself with one word in one line of the
, "pasture-land of horses", applied to
in the Peloponnesus
What is said about it is reported by different authors and all accounts differ. The explanation is trivial and mythical, but all accounts agree Hellanicus said the term Argeia (gē)
once applied to all Peloponnesus and that Pelasgus and his two brothers received it as an inheritance from their father, named either Triopas
. Pelasgus built the citadel
of Argos on the Erasinus
river, whence the name Pelasgic Argos (of the Peloponnesus), but later resettled inland, built Parrhasia
and named the region or caused it to be named Pelasgia, to be renamed Arcadia
with the coming of the Greeks.
According to Fragment 76 of Hellanicus's
, from Pelasgus and his wife Menippe came a line of kings:
, Teutamides and Nasas (kings of Pelasgiotis in Thessaly).
The Pelasgians under Nasas "rose up" (anestēsan
) against the Hellenes (who presumably had acquired Thessaly) and departed for
where they first took Cortona
and then founded Tyrrhenia
. The conclusion is that Hellanicus believed the Pelasgians of Thessaly (and indirectly of Peloponnesus) to have been the ancestors of the
, the Greek historian
wrote, with uncertainty, about the language of the Pelasgians:
Herodotus alludes to other districts where Pelasgian peoples lived on under changed names;
and "the Pelasgian city of Antandrus
in the Troad
probably provide instances of this. He mentions that there were Pelasgian populations on the islands of Lemnos
Those of Lemnos he represents as being of Hellespontine Pelasgians who had been living in Athens but whom the Athenians
resettled on Lemnos and then found it necessary to reconquer.
This expulsion of (non-Athenian) Pelasgians from Athens may reflect, according to the historian Robert Buck, "a dim memory of forwarding of refugees, closely akin to the Athenians in speech and custom, to the Ionian colonies".
Herodotus also mentions the Cabeiri
, the gods of the Pelasgians, whose worship gives an idea of where the Pelasgians once were.
Another claim made by Herodotus entails the Hellenes (associated with the Dorians
) having separated from the Pelasgians with the former surpassing the latter numerically:
He states that the Pelasgians of Athens were called "Cranai"
and that the Pelasgian population among the Ionians
of the Peloponnesus
were the "Aegialian Pelasgians".
Moreover, Herodotus mentions that the Aeolians
, according to the Hellenes, were known anciently as "Pelasgians".
He regards the Athenians as having lived in scattered independent settlements in
but at some time after Theseus
they changed residence to Athens
, which was already populated. A plot of land below the Acropolis was called "Pelasgian" and was regarded as cursed, but the Athenians settled there anyway.
In connection with the campaign against
, Thucydides mentions that several settlements on the promontory of
were home to:
, building on a fragment from Hesiod that attests to a tradition of an aboriginal Pelasgian people in Arcadia, developed a theory of the Pelasgians as a people living a "military way of life" (stratiōtikon bion
) "and that, in converting many peoples to the same mode of life, they imparted their name to all," meaning "all of Hellas". They colonized Crete and extended their rule over Epirus, Thessaly and by implication over wherever else the ancient authors said they were, beginning with Homer. The Peloponnese was called "Pelasgia".
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
in several pages gives a synoptic interpretation of the Pelasgians based on the sources available to him then, concluding that Pelasgians were Greek:
He goes on to add that the nation wandered a great deal. They were originally natives of "Achaean Argos" descended from Pelasgus, the son of Zeus and Niobe. They migrated from there to Haemonia (later called Thessaly), where they "drove out the barbarian inhabitants" and divided the country into Phthiotis, Achaia, and Pelasgiotis, named after Achaeus, Phthius and Pelasgus, "the sons of Larissa and Poseidon." Subsequently, "...about the sixth generation they were driven out by the
, who are now called
From there, the Pelasgians dispersed to
, the coast along the
and the islands, especially Lesbos
, which had been colonized by
son of Crinacus
. Most went to
and eventually being driven from there to Italy
then called Saturnia. They landed at Spina
at the mouth of the Po River
. Still others crossed the
and being driven from there went to the country of the Aborigines. These consented to a treaty and settled them at Velia
. They and the Aborigenes took over Umbria but were dispossessed by the
. The author continues to detail the tribulations of the Pelasgians and then goes on to the Tyrrhenians, whom he is careful to distinguish from the Pelasgians.
Description of Greece
mentions the Arcadians
who state that Pelasgus
(along with his followers) was the first inhabitant of their land.
Upon becoming king, Pelasgus was responsible for inventing huts
, sheep-skin coats, and a diet consisting of
. Moreover, the land he ruled was named "Pelasgia".
became king, Pelasgia was renamed "Arcadia
" and its inhabitants (the Pelasgians) were renamed "Arcadians".
Pausanias also mentions the Pelasgians as responsible for creating a wooden image of Orpheus
in a sanctuary of Demeter
as well as expelling the Minyans
dedicates a section of his Geography
to the Pelasgians, relating both his own opinions and those of prior writers. Of his own opinions he says:
He defines Pelasgian Argos as being "between the outlets of the
River and Thermopylae
as far as the mountainous country of Pindus
" and states that it took its name from Pelasgian rule. He includes also the tribes of
as Pelasgians (based on the opinions of "many"). Lesbos
is named Pelasgian. Caere
was settled by Pelasgians from Thessaly, who called it by its former name, "Agylla". Pelasgians also settled around the mouth of the Tiber River
and a few other settlements under a king, Maleos.
in his mythography The Greek Myths
claims that the Pelasgian creation myth
involves a singular creatrix goddess who dominates man and predates other deities. The goddess gives birth to all things, fertilised not by any male opposite but by symbolic seeds in the form of the wind, beans, or insects.
In the absence of certain knowledge about the identity (or identities) of the Pelasgians, various theories have been proposed. Some of the more prevalent theories supported by scholarship are presented below. Since Greek is classified as an
, the major question of concern is whether Pelasgian was an Indo-European language.
One major theory utilizes the name "Pelasgian" to describe the inhabitants of the lands around the
before the arrival of proto-Greek
speakers, as well as traditionally identified enclaves of descendants that still existed in classical Greece. The theory derives from the original concepts of the philologist
, whose views prevailed throughout the first half of the 20th century and are still given some credibility today.
wrote them off as mythical, the results of archaeological excavations at Çatalhöyük
by James Mellaart
and Fritz Schachermeyr led them to conclude that the Pelasgians had migrated from Asia Minor to the Aegean basin in the 4th millennium BC
In this theory, a number of possible non-Indo-European linguistic and cultural features are attributed to the Pelasgians:
- Groups of apparently non-Indo-European loan words in the
Greek language, borrowed in its prehistoric development.
- Non-Greek and possibly non-Indo-European roots for many Greek toponyms in the region, containing the consonantal strings "-nth-" (e.g., Corinth, Probalinthos,
Amarynthos), or its equivalent "-ns-" (e.g., Tiryns); "-tt-", e.g., in the peninsula of
Hill, the deme
of Gargettus, etc.; or its equivalent "-ss-":
Parnassus, the river names
and Ilissos, the Cretan cities of
etc. These strings also appear in other non-Greek, presumably substratally inherited nouns such as asáminthos
(terebinth), etc. Other placenames with no apparent Indo-European etymology include
Mytilene, etc. (note the common
ending); also Thebes,
Rhamnus, and others.
In western Anatolia, many
with the "-ss-" infix derive from the adjectival suffix also seen in cuneiform Luwian
and some Palaic
; the classic example is
(loosely, "City of the Storm God Tarhunta"), and later Parnassus
may be related to the Hittite word parna-
or "house". These elements have led to a second theory, that Pelasgian was to some degree an Anatolian language
Vladimir I. Georgiev
asserted that the Pelasgians were Indo-Europeans, with an Indo-European etymology of pelasgoi
, "sea" as the
, the PRŚT of Egyptian inscriptions, and related them to the neighbouring
. He proposed a soundshift model from
Following Vladimir I. Georgiev,[verification needed]
who placed Pelasgian as an Indo-European language "between Albanian and Armenian",[verification needed]
Albert Joris Van Windekens (1915—1989) offered rules for an unattested hypothetical Indo-European Pelasgian language, selecting vocabulary for which there was no Greek etymology among the names of places, heroes, animals, plants, garments, artifacts, social organization.[verification needed]
His 1952 essay Le Pélasgique
was critically received.[verification needed]
During the early 20th century, archaeological excavations conducted by the
Italian Archaeological School
and by the American Classical School
on the Athenian Acropolis
and on other sites within Attica revealed Neolithic dwellings, tools, pottery and skeletons from domesticated animals (i.e., sheep, fish). All of these discoveries showed significant resemblances to the Neolithic discoveries made on the Thessalian acropolises of Sesklo
. These discoveries help provide physical confirmation of the literary tradition that describes the Athenians as the descendants of the Pelasgians, who appear to descend continuously from the Neolithic inhabitants in Thessaly. Overall, the archaeological evidence indicates that the site of the Acropolis was inhabited by farmers as early as the 6th millennium BCE.[Note 1]
It should be noted, however, that contrary to what Prokopiou suggests about the results of the American excavations near the Clepsydra, Sara Imerwahr in her definitive publication of the prehistoric material unequivocally states that no Dimini-type pottery was unearthed.
In August and September 1926, members of the Italian School of Archaeology conducted trial excavations on the island of Lemnos. A short account of their excavations appeared in the
for 3 January 1927. The overall purpose of the excavations was to shed light on the island's "Etrusco-Pelasgian" civilization. The excavations were conducted on the site of the city of Hephaisteia (i.e., Palaiopolis) where the Pelasgians, according to Herodotus, surrendered to Miltiades
of Athens. There, a Tyrrhenian necropolis (c. 9th-8th centuries BC) was discovered revealing bronze objects, pots, and more than 130 ossuaries
. The ossuaries contained distinctly male and female funeral ornaments. Male ossuaries contained knives and axes whereas female ossuaries contained earrings, bronze pins, necklaces, gold
, and bracelets. The decorations on some of the gold objects contained spirals of Mycenean origin, but had no Geometric forms. According to their ornamentation, the pots discovered at the site were from the Geometric period. However, the pots also preserved spirals indicative of Mycenean art. The results of the excavations indicate that the Tyrrhenians or Pelasgians of Lemnos were a remnant of a Mycenean population.[Note 2]
During the 1980s, the Skourta Plain Project identified Middle Helladic and Late Helladic sites on mountain summits near the plains of
. These fortified mountain settlements were, according to tradition, inhabited by Pelasgians up until the end of the
. Moreover, the location of the sites is an indication that the Pelasgian inhabitants sought to distinguish themselves "ethnically" (a fluid term
) and economically from the
who controlled the Skourta Plain.[Note 3]
||Wikimedia Commons has media related to
According to Prokopiou: "Some forty years ago excavations on the Athenian Acropolis and on other sites in Attica brought to light many indications of neolithic life - dwellings, vases, tools, skeletons of sheep - which confirmed the traditions recorded by Herodotus that the Athenians were descended from the Pelasgians, the neolithic inhabitants of Thessaly. Indeed the neolithic vases of Attica date from the earliest neolithic age (5520–4900) like the ceramics from the Thessalian acropolis of Sesclos, as well as from the later neolithic age (4900–3200) like those from the other Thessalian acropolis of Dimini...The search for traces of the neolithic age on the Acropolis began in 1922 with the excavations of the Italian Archaeological School near the Aesclepium. Another settlement was discovered in the vicinity of the Odeion of Pericles where many sherds of pottery and a stone axe, both of
type, were unearthed. Excavations carried out by the American Classical School near the Clepshydra uncovered twenty-one wells and countless pieces of handmade pottery, sherds of Dimini
type, implements of later Stone Age and bones of domestic animals and fish. The discoveries reinforced the theory that permanent settlement by farmers with their flocks, their stone and bone tools and ceramic utensils had taken place on the rock of the Acropolis as early as the sixth millennium."
Professor Della Seta reports: "The lack of weapons of bronze, the abundance of weapons of iron, and the type of the pots and the pins gives the impression that the necropolis belongs to the ninth or eighth century BC. That it did not belong to a Greek population, but to a population which, in the eyes of the Hellenes, appeared barbarous, is shown by the weapons. The Greek weapon, dagger or spear, is lacking: the weapons of the barbarians, the axe and the knife, are common. Since, however, this population...preserves so many elements of Mycenaean art, the Tyrrhenians or Pelasgians of Lemnos may be recognized as a remnant of a Mycenaean population."
French reports: "The fourth and final season of the survey of the Skourta plain was conducted in 1989 by M. and M.L.Z. Munn (ASCS). Explorations begun in 1985 and 1987 were extended into new parts of the plain and surrounding valleys, so that by now a representative portion (approximately 25%) of most of the inhabitable areas of the three koinotites of Pyli, Skourta, and Stefani have been examined intensively. 66 sites were discovered or studied for the first time in the course of this highly productive season, yielding a total of 120 premodern sites studied by our survey since 1985. The survey should have identified all major settlement sites (over 5 ha) and a representative sample of smaller sites in the study area. A summary of the chief conclusions to be drawn from the four seasons can be made...MH settlement is established on two summits overlooking the plain...one of which, Panakton...becomes the most substantial LH site in the area. A fortified MH settlement is also established on a peak in rugged country beyond the NE edge of the plain...between the Mazareika and Vountima valleys, in which other settlements are established in the LH era...The remoteness of this NE sector, and the great natural strength of the MH site and a nearby LH IIIC citadel...suggest that the inhabitants of these glens and crags sought to protect and separate themselves from peoples beyond the peaks that surrounded them, perhaps because they were ethnically distinct and economically more or less independent of the Myc Greeks who dominated the plains. Traditions of Pelasgians in these mountains at the end of the
raise the possibility that these may have been Pelasgian sites. Once abandoned, in the LH IIIC or PG
eras, most of these sites in the NE sector are not again inhabited for well over a millennium. Elsewhere, within the more accessible expanse of the Skourta plain itself, LH settlements are established on many sites which are later again important in the C era..."
Rhodios & Green 2007, p. 223 (Commentary on I.987)
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000. Retrieved
"A member of a people living in the region of the Aegean Sea before the coming of the Greeks."
Sakellariou 1977, pp. 101–104.
The Birds, 1355ff.
Murray 1960, p. 43.
Pokorny 1969, pp. 831–832.
Gladstone 1858, Chapter 2, Section 3, "Derivation of the Pelasgian Name", pp. 211–215.
Klein 1966, "Pelasgian and Pelagic".
Gladstone 1858. The Pelasgians are covered especially in Volume I.
Iliad, 2.840–2.843. The camp at
is mentioned in Iliad, 10.428–10.429.
Not the same as the
in Thessaly, Greece. Many towns bearing the same (or similar) name existed.
Odyssey, 19.175–19.177 (Robert Fagles's translation).
Odyssey, Book 19 (T.E. Lawrence's translation).
The location is never explicitly given. Gladstone shows, by process of elimination, that it must be in the north of Thessaly. (Gladstone 1858, pp. 100–105.)
Hom. Il. 10.428
Hesiod fr. 319 M–W =
Catalogue of Women
fr. 161 = Strabo 5.2.4
Prichard 1841, p. 489.
The Suppliants, Lines 249–259.
The Suppliants, Lines 262–263.
The Suppliants, Lines 128–129.
The Suppliants, Lines 154–155.
The Suppliants, Lines 279–281.
Sophocles & Dindorf 1849, Fragment 256 (p. 352).
Orestes, Lines 857 and 933.
Hecataeus of Miletus & Klausen 1831, Fragment 224 (p. 140).
Hecataeus of Miletus & Klausen 1831, Fragment 375 (p. 157).
Mentioned in Pseudo-Apollodorus,
Hellanicus, Sturz & Canteri 1826, pp. 49–51.
Hellanicus, Sturz & Canteri 1826, pp. 108–109.
Histories, 1.57. (Herodotus & Strassler 2009, p. 32).)
2.51. The text allows two interpretations, that Pelasgians were indigenous there or that they had been resettled by Athens.
Buck 1979, p. 79.
Histories, 1.56. (Herodotus & Strassler 2009, p. 32.)
Histories, 1.58. (Herodotus & Strassler 2009, p. 33.)
Histories, 7.95. (Herodotus & Strassler 2009, p. 533.)
History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.1.3.
History of the Peloponnesian War, 2.16–2.17.1
History of the Peloponnesian War, 4.14.109.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus.
Description of Greece,
Description of Greece,
Description of Greece,
Description of Greece,
Description of Greece,
Graves 1990, Volume I.
Mellaart 1975, "Southeastern Europe: The Aegean and the Southern Balkans".
Grote 1862, pp. 43–44.
Graves 1990, Volume 1.
Kaigi 1969, M. G. Abdushelishvili, "The Genesis of the Aboriginal Population of the Caucasus in the Light of Anthropological Data".
Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers and
Bernd Jürgen Fischer, editors of
Albanian Identities: Myth and History
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press 2002), present papers resulting from the London Conference held in 1999 entitled "The Role of Myth in the History and Development of Albania". The "Pelasgian" myth of Albanians as the most ancient community in southeastern Europe is among those explored in Noel Malcolm's essay, "Myths of Albanian National Identity: Some Key Elements, As Expressed in the Works of Albanian Writers in America in the Early Twentieth Century". The introductory essay by Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers establishes the context of the "Pelasgian Albanian" mythos, applicable to Eastern Europe generally, in terms of the longing for a stable identity in a rapidly opening society.
Georgiev 1941, p. 63, quoted in H. M. Hoenigswald's review in
19.3 (July–September 1943) p. 270.
Van Windekens 1952;
Van Windekens 1960.
As, for example, in Gordon Messing's extended review, criticizing point-by-point, in
30.1 (January–March 1954), pp. 104–108.
Prokopiou & Smith 1964, pp. 21–22.
Immerwahr 1971, p. 19: "It is the Late Neolithic period that provides most of our parallels, yet, curiously, the striking Dimini-type painted wares of Thessaly are completely lacking, and there is only one small recognisable sherd of the related Mattpainted ware of Central and Southern Greece."
Heffner 1927, pp. 123–124.
The American Forum for Global Education 2000.
French 1989–1990, "Skourta Plain project", p. 35.
- Rhodios, Apollonios; Green, Peter (2007).
The Argonautika. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press.
- Buck, Robert J. (1979).
A History of Boeotia. Alberta, Canada: University of Alberta.
- Cadogan, Gerald; Caskey, John Langdon (1986).
The End of the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill.
- French, E. B. (1989–1990). "Archaeology in Greece 1989-90".
(36): 2–82. doi:10.2307/581027.
- Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov
(1937). Urgriechen und Urillyrier (Thrako-Illyrier)
(in German). Sofia, Bulgaria: Imprimerie de la Cour.
- Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov
(1941). Vorgriechische Sprachwissenshaft
(in German). Sofia, Bulgaria: Universitätsdruckerei.
- Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov
(1961). La toponymie ancienne de la péninsule balkanique et la thèse mediterannée, Sixth International Onomastic Congrees, Florence-Pisa, April 1961 (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences), 1961
(in French). Sofia, Bulgaria: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
- Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov
(1977). Trakite i tehnijat ezik
(in Bulgarian). Sofia, Bulgaria: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
- Gladstone, William Ewart (1858).
Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age
I. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
- Gordeziani, Rismag (1985).
Pre-Grecian and Georgian. Tbilisi, Georgia.
- Graves, Robert
(1990) . The Greek Myths
1. London, United Kingdom: Penguin Books.
- Grote, George (1862).
A History of Greece: From the Earliest Period to the Close of the Generation Contemporary with Alexander the Great
II. London, United Kingdom: John Murray.
- Hecataeus of Miletus; Klausen, Rudolph Heinrich (1831).
Hecataei Milesii Fragmenta: Scylacis Caryandensis Periplus. Berlin (Berolini), Germany: Impensis G. Reimeri.
- Hellanicus; Sturz, Fridericus Guilielmus; Canteri, Gulielmi (1826).
Hellanici Lesbii Fragmenta: Edition Altera Aucta et Emendata. Lipsiae: Sumtibus C. H. F. Hartmanni.
- Heffner, Edward H. (January 1927). "Archaeological News: Notes on Recent Archaeological Excavations and Discoveries; Other News (July–December 1926)".
American Journal of Archaeology
- Herodotus; Strassler, Robert B. (2009) .
The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. New York, New York: Random House Incorporated.
- Immerwahr, Sara Anderson (1971).
The Athenian Agora: The Neolithic and Bronze Ages
13. Princeton, New Jersey: The American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
- Kaigi, Nihon Gakujutsu (1969).
Proceedings: VIIIth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, 1968, Tokyo and Kyoto. Tokyo, Japan: Science Council of Japan.
- Klein, Ernest (1966).
A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Publishing Company.
ISBN 0-444-40930-0. LC 65-13229.
- Mellaart, James (1965–1966). "Catal Hüyük, A Neolithic City in Anatolia".
Proceedings of the British Academy
- Mellaart, James (1975).
The Neolithic of the Near East. New York, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- Murray, Gilbert
(1960). The Rise of the Greek Epic. New York, New York and Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. LC60-13910.
- Olcott, William Tyler (1914).
Sun Lore of All Ages. Rain, Tedd St (Foreword by).
G. P. Putnam's Sons. Retrieved
- Pokorny, Julius (1969).
Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch
(in German). New York, New York: French and European Publications, Incorporated. ISBN 0-8288-6602-3.
- Prichard, James Cowles
(1841). Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Containing Researches into the History of the European Nations
(3rd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper.
- Prokopiou, Angelos; Smith, Edwin (1964).
Athens: City of the Gods from Prehistory to 338 B.C. New York, New York: Stein and Day.
- Sakellariou, Michael B. (1977).
Peuples Préhelléniques d'Origine Indo-Européennee
(in French). Athens, Greece: Ekdotike Athenon.
- Schachermeyr, Fritz (1976).
Die Ägäische Frühzeit: Forschungsbericht über die Ausgrabungen im letzten Jahrzehnt und über ihre Ergebnisse für unser Geschichtsbild. Bd. I. Die Vormykenischen Perioden des Griechischen Festlandes und der Kykladen
(in German). Vienna, Austria: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
- Sophocles; Dindorf, Wilhelm (1849).
ΣΟΦΟΚΛΗΣ: Sophoclis Tragoediae Superstites et Deperditarum Fragmenta: Editio Secunda Emendatior. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
- The American Forum for Global Education (2000).
"Foreigners and Barbarians (Adapted from Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks)". The American Forum for Global Education. Retrieved
- Van Windekens, Albert Joris (1952).
Le Pélasgique: Essai sur une Langue Indo-Européenne Préhéllenique
(in French). Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Université de Louvain, Institut Orientalistique.
- Van Windekens, Albert Joris (1960).
(in French). Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Université de Louvain, Institut Orientalistique.