- Broadcasting systems
- Broadcasting as a medium of art
- Broadcasting operations
In all democratic countries, governments have found it difficult to reflect minority views in broadcasting. The Netherlands has made perhaps the most determined attempt to deal with this problem. The Dutch system basically consists of two national organizations, the Nederlandse Omroepprogramma Stichting (NOS), which is responsible for the transmission of general-interest programs and the promotion of Dutch broadcasting interests, and the Nederlandse Omroepproductie Bedrijf, an independent production company, and eight broadcasting societies (or organizations) that, through the size of their membership, have earned the right to produce a proportion of NOS’s output. The Broadcasting Act of 1966 called upon the responsible minister to allocate time on the air, in both radio and television, to bodies that fulfilled certain conditions, in particular a sufficient membership; by October 1971 those bodies included broadcasting associations or organizations, groups aspiring to recognition as broadcasting societies, churches, associations of a nature comparable to churches, political parties, other reputable associations of approved purpose, an advertising foundation, and educational bodies. As far as the full-fledged associations are concerned, the amount of time they have on the air is determined by their category, in turn dependent upon the number of subscribers, whose subscriptions pay for a weekly program bulletin. Some of the other bodies with time on the air may prepare their own programs or have them produced by groups with more experience. Organizations with at least 60,000 members may petition to broadcast from one hour per week to four hours. The government, however, has moved to restrict access to broadcasting, with legislation requiring aspirant broadcasting groups to offer innovative proposals to the existing range of programs in order to qualify. The financing of broadcasting, when production time is allocated among so many, presents a complex problem of accountancy. The revenue comes from the sale of receiving-set licenses and from advertising profits. Advertising on radio and television was first permitted in 1967 and is provided by the Stichting Ether Reclame.
The Netherlands has five radio networks and three independent television services. There is no regional television, but there are several regional radio organizations. The main categories of overall radio output are 25 percent news, public affairs, and information, 22 percent classical music, 14 percent light music, and 28 percent entertainment and other light programs. Television output is more diversified, with 32.3 percent entertainment (of which more than half is of foreign origin), 2.9 percent Dutch-produced drama, 5 percent films (mostly foreign), and 31.2 percent news, public affairs, and information.
Radio Nederland Wereldomroep (Radio Netherlands International) broadcasts daily shortwave transmissions to most areas of the world in Dutch and eight other languages (Portuguese, Spanish, Sranan Tongo, Papiamentu, Arabic, English, French, and Indonesian).
In New Zealand the relatively small population means that broadcasting personnel are closely in touch with their audience, whose demand for a high-standard broadcasting service presents financial problems. The National Broadcasting Service, a government department set up in 1936, was faced with the competition of the National Commercial Broadcasting Service a year later. The two were amalgamated and reorganized as a government department, the New Zealand Broadcasting Service, in 1946. The service had some degree of independence from the start, and the inauguration of a television service in June 1960 provided the opportunity for the Broadcasting Act of 1961, by which was created the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation. In 1977 the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand was created, incorporating two previously independent networks. Dissolved in 1988, it was replaced by Radio New Zealand Ltd and Television New Zealand Ltd. Radio New Zealand has two radio medium-wave networks that include some broadcasts in Maori, Samoan, Tongan, Niuean, and Tokelauan. The corporation has more than 50 radio stations in more than 30 cities and towns. Television New Zealand operates two television networks, TV 1 and TV 2. It has more than 10 television stations with more than 600 relay stations, mainly low-powered. TV 3 is a private commercial station. The corporation is also responsible for the Foreign Service (Radio New Zealand), which broadcasts to Australia, the Pacific Islands, and the Ross Dependency in the Antarctic in English, twice a week to Samoa in Samoan, and once a fortnight to the Cook Islands, in Rarotongan, and to Niue, in Niuean. There are nine private radio stations.