- Influence and significance
- Old Testament canon, texts, and versions
- The canon
- The divisions of the TaNaKh
- Texts and versions
- Textual criticism: manuscript problems
- Texts and manuscripts
- Early versions
- Later and modern versions: English
- English translations after the Reformation
- The King James and subsequent versions
- Greek, Hungarian, Italian, and Portuguese translations
- Scandinavian, Slavic, Spanish, and Swiss translations
- The canon
- Old Testament history
- Old Testament literature
- The Torah (Law, Pentateuch, or Five Books of Moses)
- Deuteronomy: Introductory discourse
- The Neviʾim (Prophets)
- Judges: importance and role
- Samuel: Israel under Samuel and Saul
- The Torah (Law, Pentateuch, or Five Books of Moses)
- Intertestamental literature
- Nature and significance
- Apocryphal writings
- Additions to Daniel and Esther
- The Pseudepigraphal writings
- Works indicating a Greek influence
- Apocalyptic and eschatological works
- New Testament canon, texts, and versions
- The New Testament canon
- New Testament history
- The Jewish and Hellenistic matrix
- The religious situation in the Greco-Roman world of the 1st century ad
- New Testament literature
- The Synoptic Gospels
- The Pauline Letters
- The Pastoral Letters: I and II Timothy and Titus
- The Catholic Letters
- The Johannine Letters: I, II, and III John
- New Testament Apocrypha
- Biblical literature in liturgy
- The critical study of biblical literature: exegesis and hermeneutics
- Critical methods
- Types of biblical hermeneutics
- The development of biblical exegesis and hermeneutics in Judaism
- The development of biblical exegesis and hermeneutics in Christianity
Medieval and modern versions: Dutch, French, and German
Until the Reformation, Dutch Bible translations were largely free adaptations, paraphrases, or rhymed verse renderings of single books or parts thereof. A popular religious revival at the end of the 12th century accelerated the demand for vernacular Scriptures, and one of the earliest extant examples is the Liège manuscript (c. 1270) translation of the Diatessaron (a composite rendering of the four Gospels) by Tatian, a 2nd-century Syrian Christian heretical scholar; it is believed to derive from a lost Old Latin original. Best known of all the rhymed versions is the Rijmbijbel of Jacob van Maerlant (1271), based on Peter Comestar’s Historia scholastica. Despite the poor quality of Johan Schutken’s translation of the New Testament and Psalms (1384), it became the most widely used of medieval Dutch versions.
With the Reformation came a renewed interest in the study of the Scriptures. Martin Luther’s Bible was repeatedly rendered into Dutch, the most important version being that of Jacob van Liesveldt (1526). It was mainly to counter the popularity of this edition that Roman Catholics produced their own Dutch Bible, executed by Nicolaas van Winghe (Leuven, 1548). A revision printed by Jan Moerentorf (Moretus, 1599) became the standard version until it was superseded by that of the Peter Canisius Association (1929–39), now in general use. A fresh translation of the New Testament into modern Dutch appeared in 1961.
The deep conflicts that characterized the history of Christianity in France made it difficult for one authoritative version to emerge. The first complete French Bible was produced in the 13th century at the University of Paris, and toward the end of that century Guyart des Moulins executed his Bible historiale. Both works served as the basis of future redactions, of which the Bible printed in Paris (date given variously as 1487, 1496, or 1498) by order of King Charles VIII is a good example.
The real history of the French Bible began in Paris in 1523 with the publication of the New Testament, almost certainly the work of the reformer Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples (Faber Stapulensis). The Old Testament appeared in Antwerp in 1528 and the two together in 1530 as the Antwerp Bible. The first true Protestant version came out in Serrières, near Neuchâtel, five years later, the work of Pierre Robert, called Olivétan. This version was frequently revised throughout the 16th century, the most-celebrated editions being Calvin’s of 1546 and that of Robert Estienne (Stephanus) of 1553. Roman Catholics produced a new version, the Louvain Bible of 1550, based on both Lefèvre and Olivétan. Modernizations of Olivétan appeared in succeeding centuries. The most important French version of the 20th century is the Jerusalem Bible, prepared by professors at the Dominican École Biblique de Jérusalem (Paris 1949–54, complete 1956).
The early Old Testament in Gothic has already been described. The New Testament remains are far more extensive and are preserved mainly in the Codex Argenteus (c. 525) and Codex Gissensis. The translation, essentially based on a Byzantine text, is exceedingly literal and not homogeneous. It is difficult to determine the degree of contamination that the original Gospels translation of Ulfilas had undergone by the time it appeared in these codices.
Nothing is known of the vernacular Scriptures in Germany prior to the 8th century, when an idiomatic translation of Matthew from Latin into the Bavarian dialect was made. From Fulda (in Germany) circa 830 came a more literal East Franconian German translation of the Gospel story. In the same period was produced the Heliand (“Saviour”), a versified version of the Gospels. Such poetic renderings cannot, strictly speaking, be regarded as translations. There is evidence, however, for the existence of German Psalters from the 9th century on. By the 13th century the different sects and movements that characterized the religious situation in Germany had stimulated a demand for popular Bible reading. Since all the early printed Bibles derived from a single family of late 14th-century manuscripts, German translations must have gained wide popularity. Another impetus toward the use of the German Scriptures in this period can be traced to mystics of the upper Rhine. A complete New Testament, the Augsburg Bible, can be dated to 1350, and another from Bohemia, Codex Teplensis (c. 1400), has also survived.
The Wenzel Bible, an Old Testament made between 1389 and 1400, is said to have been ordered by King Wenceslas, and large numbers of 15th-century manuscripts have been preserved.
The first printed German Bible (the Mentel Bible) appeared at Strassburg no later than 1466 and ran through 18 editions before 1522. Despite some evidence that ecclesiastical authority did not entirely look with favour upon this vernacular development, the printed Bible appeared in Germany earlier, in more editions, and in greater quantity than anywhere else.
A new era opened up with the work of Martin Luther, for whom a translation from the original languages was a necessary and logical conclusion of his doctrine of justification by faith, to which the Scriptures provided the only true key. His New Testament (Wittenberg, 1522) was made from the second edition of Erasmus’s Greek Testament. The Old Testament followed in successive parts, based on the Brescia Hebrew Bible (1494). Luther’s knowledge of Hebrew and Aramaic was limited, but his rendering shows much influence of Rashi, the great 11th–12th-century French rabbinic scholar and commentator, through the use of the notes of Nicholas of Lyra. The complete Lutheran Bible emerged from the press in 1534. Luther was constantly revising his work with the assistance of other scholars. Between 1534 and his death in 1546, 10 editions were printed, and another edition was printed posthumously. Luther’s Bible truly fulfilled his objective of serving the needs of the common people, and it in turn formed the basis of the first translations in those lands to which Lutheranism spread. It proved to be a landmark in German prose literature and contributed greatly to the development of the modern language.
The phenomenal success of Luther’s Bible and the failure of attempts to repress it led to the creation of Roman Catholic versions in German, largely adaptations of Luther’s. Hieronymus Emser’s edition simply brought the latter into line with the Vulgate. Johann Dietenberger issued a revision of Emser (Mainz, 1534) and used Luther’s Old Testament in conjunction with an Anabaptist (radical Protestant group) version and the Zürich version of 1529. It became the standard Catholic version. Of the 20th-century translations, the Grünewald Bible, which reached a seventh edition in 1956, is one of the most noteworthy.
German glosses in Hebrew script attached to Hebrew Bibles in the 12th and 13th centuries constitute the earliest Jewish attempts to render the Scriptures into that German dialect current among the Jews of middle Europe, the dialect that developed into Judeo-German, or Yiddish. The first translation proper has been partially preserved in a manuscript from Mantua dated 1421. The earliest printed translation is that of the scriptural dictionaries prepared by a baptized Jew, Michael Adam (Constance, 1543–44; Basel, 1583, 1607). The version of Jacob ben Isaac Ashkenazi of Janów, known as the Tzʾenah u-Reʾna (Lublin, 1616), became one of the most popular and widely diffused works of its kind.
The first Jewish translation into pure High German, though in Hebrew characters (1780–83), made by Moses Mendelssohn, opened a new epoch in German Jewish life. The first Jewish rendering of the entire Hebrew Bible in German characters was made by Gotthold Salomon (Altona, 1837). An attempt to preserve the quality of the Hebrew style in German garb was the joint translation of two Jewish religious philosophers, Martin Buber and Franz Rosenzweig (15 vol., Berlin, 1925–37; revised in 4 vol., Cologne, 1954–62).