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The longstanding differences between the United States and Spain reached a climax on February 15, 1898 when the armored cruiser USS Maine was destroyed by an explosion in the harbor of Havana, Cuba. Of the 355 Sailors, 39 Marines and 26 officers aboard the ship, 253 were killed outright and seven died later of extensive burns and compound fractures. In part spurred by this tragedy, the United States declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898.
Before the declaration of war, the Navy Medical Department hastened its preparations for the inevitable conflict. Naval hospitals were equipped to their full capacity; plans were prepared for building pavilion wards on hospital grounds to accommodate increasing casualties. In 1898, the Navy operated hospitals in Brooklyn, N.Y., Chelsea, Mass., Mare Island, Calif., Newport, R.I., Norfolk (Portsmouth), Va., Pensacola, Fla., Philadelphia, Penn., Portsmouth, N.H., Sitka, Alaska, and Yokohama, Japan. Navy medical personnel served aboard the North Atlantic Station, Pacific Station, South Atlantic Station, European Station, Asiatic Station, Northwestern Lakes, aboard Receiving Ships, at Marine Barracks, Navy Yards and other Shore Stations CONUS and OCONUS.
On April 7, 1898, the president authorized Secretary of the Navy John D. Long to purchase an “ambulance ship” for the service of the Navy. The Creole—an ocean steamer from the Cromwell line—was converted into a Navy hospital ship within 16-days. Her new name—USS Solace—was given to her by Margaret Long, the daughter of the Secretary of the Navy. Every Navy hospital ship since 1898 has followed the Solace’s lead and been given a name denoting healing, peace, and refuge.
USS Solace was fitted to care for 200 patients comfortably (either in berths, swinging cots or staterooms). Her hospital was staffed by five medical officers, three hospital stewards, four messmen, and two laundry men. The ship carried steam launches and a barge for transferring the sick and wounded at sea, and had steam winches on both sides of its upper deck for the hoisting and lowering of the wounded. She would pick up her first patients (57 Sailors and Marines) on June 5 from ships that took part in the bombardment of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Among her many claims in the Spanish-American War was the first antiseptic surgery performed at sea.
Realizing the necessity for a Corps of volunteer medical officers, the Medical Department established medical examining boards in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk, and Mare Island to examine applicants for appointment to the Medical Corps. Over 2,000 applicants were received, but only a small number were examined. Sixty-five new assistant surgeons were appointed and an additional 25 were given temporary appointments (acting assistant surgeons) for the war effort. Also, 11 Passed Assistant Surgeons and eight Assistant Surgeons serving with state naval militias were mustered into service. As a result, a total of 220 medical officers were employed by the Navy Department during the war with Spain.
A longstanding need of the Medical Department, and an urgent one following the declaration of war, was for a more effective organization of its enlisted personnel. The Bureau of Medicine and Surgery had long requested for the establishment of an independent corps of medical enlisted Sailors. The war forced the issue and on June 17, 1898 an Act was approved established the Navy Hospital Corps. The act provided for 25 pharmacists with the rank, pay and privileges of warrant officers and for an indefinite number of hospital stewards and hospital apprentices (first and second class).
Women did not yet serve officially as part of the Navy Medical Department in 1898, but we do see women serving in volunteer capacity at naval hospitals and even aboard ships. Four female medical students at Johns Hopkins University volunteered their services at the Naval Hospital Brooklyn during the war. In addition, six women nurses from the registered list of the Daughters of the American Revolution and five sisters of Charity volunteered their services at Naval Hospital Norfolk (Portsmouth), Va.
The Navy’s first actual contact with the enemy occurred on the morning of May 1. Commodore Dewey entered the harbor at Manila and carried out the systematic destruction of the Spanish squadron consisting of 11 vessels, two tugs, and several launches under the guns of the Spanish forts at Cavite. The victory was accomplished with no damage to the American squadron and with the slightest wounding of nine men. The role of the Navy Medical Department in the Manila campaign was largely one of maintaining the health of Navy personnel through the enforcement of hygienic and sanitary measures.
Some of the first naval casualties resulted in an engagement off Cienfuegos on May 11, 1898 when several cutters belonging to USS Marblehead and Nashville went inshore to cut a cable leading from that port. Enemy volleys began targeting the cutters wounding seven of the Marblehead’s crew and three from the Nashville.
On May 11th, the torpedo boat Winslow was fired upon off Cardenas by a masked battery resulting in the deaths of one officer, and four Sailors and five wounded.
The naval blockade of Havana, Matanzas and other Cuban ports commenced on April 22, 1898. Five days later, American vessels began bombarding Spanish batteries in Cuba to establish their location and strength. On May 4, the squadron proceeded to Puerto Rico to look for Admiral Pascual Cervera’s fleet. The squadron began an active bombardment of the port on May 12th and was met with heavy return fire which resulted in one death and five casualties aboard the battleships USS New York and three casualties aboard USS Iowa.
Supported by USS Marblehead, 647 Marines landed on Guantanamo in June. The Spanish opposition retired without opposition and the hill upon which they had been located at once taken by the Marines and redubbed “Camp McCalla.” One June 12th, while bandaging the wound on a private’s hand, Assistant Surgeon John Blair Gibbs was killed by enemy fire. He was the only Navy medical officer killed in the Spanish American War. Author and war correspondent Stephen Crane, then embedded with the Marines, would later document the life and death of Gibbs in a report from the field.
On June 19th, the Marines attacked the Spanish at Casco three miles from camp. In the attack five Marines and one Navy Medical officer was killed. Sixteen Marines were wounded.
On June 22, the American Squadron engaged with Spanish batteries off of Santiago resulting in one death and eight wounded aboard USS Texas. The Army under command of General “Pecos Bill” Shafter would begin their landings east of Santiago at Daiquiri and Siboney on the very same day.
The largest naval engagement of the Spanish-American War, the Battle of Santiago saw the destruction of Admiral Cervera’s remaining fleet. The engagement resulted in seven wounded aboard USS Brooklyn and four wounded aboard USS Texas.
In wake of the Battle of Santiago, the surviving members of Admiral Cervera’s squadron were taken prisoner and transferred to the United States. Those seriously wounded (47) were sent to the Naval Hospital Norfolk (Portsmouth), Va. for treatment. Those suffering minor injuries and officers (45) who were uninjured were sent to the Naval Academy in Annapolis, Md. The remaining men (20 officers and 1,661 Sailors) were confined to the makeshift “Camp Long” at U.S. Navy Yard in Portsmouth, N.H. Of those in New Hampshire, 272 were admitted to the Naval Hospital. The Spanish prisoners were repatriated in September 1898.
The cessation of hostilities with the Spanish-American War in August 1898, marked a new age for the world newest colonial power with new “spoils.” The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps would play a significant role in administering the new territories in Guam, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Cuba. With these new ports came a host of endemic tropical illnesses with debilitating effects on military personnel. Navy medical personnel would now be serving on the frontlines in the war against these tropical diseases.