an attractive Medusa occur on vases as early as the mid-fifth century B.C in
the context of the Perseus myth.
portrayals, however, feature a
monster, generally hideously depicted.
The purpose of this thesis is to examine the iconographic development
of Medusa's full-figure and gorgoneia images on vases and other objects from
her earliest archaic representations to her fourth century B.C. portrayals.
The primary aim of this thesis is to determine when the
transformation of Medusa from a hideous monster into a beautiful woman
initially occurs and whether this transformation is simultaneous with regard
to both her full-figure representations and the gorgoneia.
One of the oldest and most complete known accounts of the Perseus
myth was written by the Greek poet, Pherecydes, probably in the first half
of the fifth century B.C. In
his second book of Genealogie which survives only in fragments,
he recounts the myth generally as follows:
Akrisios, the King of Argos was prophesied to die at the hand of his
yet unborn grandson. To prevent
the prophesy's fulfillment, Akrisios imprisoned his unwed daughter, Danäe,
in an underground chamber.
However, Zeus fell in love with her and easily penetrated her prison by
transforming himself into a shower of gold.
As a result of their union, Perseus was born.
Once Akrisios became aware of his grandson, he locked Danäe and the
infant Perseus in a chest and threw them out to sea.
The chest landed on the island of Seriphos where Diktys, a kindly
fisherman, cared for them until Perseus grew to manhood.
Meanwhile, King Polydektes, the brother of Diktys, had fallen in love
with Danäe who rejected his affection.
At an event held by the King, Perseus foolishly boasted that he would
bring back the head of Medusa.
She was the one mortal Gorgon among three sisters and was endowed with the
formidable power to turn men to stone with a glance.
The King seized the opportunity to be rid of Perseus once and for all
in order to marry Danäe.
However, Perseus was assisted in his quest for Medusa's head by Athena and
Hermes. They helped him to
obtain the cap of Hades for invisibility, the winged shoes for swiftness and
a pouch or kibisis to hold the head of Medusa.
With these magical accessories and the protection of the gods,
Perseus was able to decapitate Medusa while she slept.
At the moment of her death, Pegasus, the divine winged stallion, and
Chrysaor, the hero with the golden sword, were born from her severed neck.
Medusa's two Gorgon sisters, seeking revenge for her death pursued
Perseus, who was able to elude them by wearing the cap of Hades that made
him invisible. On his return to
the island of Seriphos, he discovered his mother taking refuge from the King
in a temple sanctuary. He
rescued her by exposing to Polydektes and his supporters the decapitated
head of the monster, whose power to petrify was effective even in death.
Perseus elected Diktys as King of Seriphos and left for Argos to find
his grandfather, whose fears about the prophecy had been allayed.
The prophecy was fulfilled nonetheless as Perseus accidently killed
Akrisios by an unlucky throw of the discos during a sporting event.
Perseus left the kingdom of Argos and retired to Asia, where his son
became the ruler of the Persians, a folk named in honor of the hero.
An account by Hesiod perhaps from as early as the eighth century B.C.
is generally limited to the events surrounding the death of Medusa and the
slaying itself which is vividly described in his poems, Shield of
Heracles and Theogony.
Shield of Heracles, 216 ff.:
was flying swift as thought.
The head of a dreadful monster, the Gorgon, covered the broad of his back,
and a bag of silver - a marvel to see - contained it; and from the bag
bright tassels of gold hung down.
Upon the head of the hero lay the dead cap of Hades which had the
awful gloom of night. Perseus
himself, the son of Danäe, was at full stretch, like one who hurries and
shudders with horror. And after
him rushed the Gorgons, unapproachable and unspeakable, longing to seize
him: as they trod upon the pale
adamant, the shield rang sharp and clear with a loud clanging.
Two serpents hung down at their girdles with heads curved forward:
their tongues were flickering, and their teeth gnashing with fury,
and their eyes glaring fiercely.
And upon the awful heads of the Gorgons great Fear was quaking.
Theogony, 270 ff.:
Ceto bare to Phorcys the fair-cheeked Graiae, sisters grey from their birth:
and both deathless gods and men who walk on earth call them Graiae,
Pemphredo well-clad, and saffron-robed Enyo, and the Gorgons who dwell
beyond glorious Ocean in the frontier land towards Night where are the
clear-voiced Hesperides, Stheno, and Euryale, and Medusa who suffered a
woeful fate: she was mortal,
but the two were undying and grew not old.
With her lay the Dark-haired One in a soft meadow amid spring
flowers. And when Perseus cut
off her head, there sprang forth great Chrysaor and the horse Pegasos, who
is called because he was born near the springs (pegae) of Ocean; and
that other, because he held a golden blade (aor) in his hands.
Important elements from the beheading of Medusa described by Hesiod
which are reflected in her early pictorial representations, include her
hideous face, the appearance of snakes in her hair and at her waist, and the
localization of the event near the garden of the Hesperides.
Although the accounts provided by Hesiod and Pherecydes were
generally accepted, variations were introduced which might have had an
influence on her visualization in art.
Contrary to the consensus description of Medusa as a hideous monster,
Pindar, writing in the early fifth century
B.C., refers to Medusa as "fair-faced".
Additionally, various ancient authors cite the dwelling place of
Medusa as Libya, rather than in the vicinity of the garden of the Hesperides.
Pindar's description in particular might have helped to generate the
visualization of Medusa as a beautiful, winged maiden which first appears in
vase painting around the middle of the fifth century B.C.
Moreover, facial features exhibited by Medusa prior to 450 B.C. might
reflect her African heritage in response to her proposed Libyan origin.
Certainly, it may be assumed that literary accounts influenced the
pictorial representations of Medusa, especially with regard to the narrative
situation portrayed. However, a
specific iconographic influence from literature is much harder to trace, if
at all, given the fragmentary preservation of the ancient works of art and
the literary sources.
The gorgon Medusa from the Perseus legend exhibits a remarkable
evolution from her early archaic representations to her later portrayals on
fourth century B.C. vases. Over
the centuries, the hideous monster of early representations is gradually
transformed into a beautiful woman, a development which is most vividly
traced in those episodes which depict scenes of her death.
The once powerful and dangerous creature, who is pitted against
Perseus in the archaic period, eventually evolves into a beautiful, but
powerless adversary who succumbs to his violent onslaught.
Three distinct Medusa types delineate her evolution in vase
The first of these occurs in archaic representations which
graphically portray her hideousness.
This image predominates until the early classical period, when a more
humanized, yet decidedly unattractive transitional or "middle" figure
appears. By the mid-fifth
century B.C. the initial beautiful type with completely human features is
introduced representing the last phase of her development.
Medusa is most dramatically portrayed in archaic vase paintings when
a stock image, possibly borrowing from Assyrian-Babylonian demon or giant
images, clearly and effectively conveys her terrifying and beastly nature.
The early artist generally represents Medusa in dramatic scenes which
provide the optimum format for exhibiting her monstrous form.
Certainly, Medusa's decapitation by Perseus and the flight of Perseus
from the Gorgons after dispatching Medusa were the preferred episodes from
the myth, based on the frequent appearance of these scenes in the archaic
Not only were they highly dramatic subjects, but they also featured
Medusa and her Gorgon sisters in prominent roles.
Medusa's round, grotesque head with its grimacing, toothy mouth,
protruding tongue and glaring eyes, together with her extraordinary size,
characterizes her archaic canonical form.
Since it is her glance or look that could turn men to stone, the
artist gave particular emphasis to her eyes.
They are usually inordinately large, glaring, sometimes bulging, and
always frontal to face the viewer, thereby stressing their petrifying power.
Her mouth also receives special attention, possibly because of its
close association with her voice.
Indeed, scholars speculate that the originating force for the Gorgon
is, in fact, some terrible noise, since the name Gorgon or "garj" in
Sanskrit means "to shriek".
Medusa's pictorial representations give credence to this theory as
they seem to convey visually the idea of a terrible, guttural roar which is
expressed by her greatly distended, open mouth and protruding tongue.
Medusa's remaining features serve to enhance her beastliness.
Her nose is generally broad and flat, more animal than human in
appearance, while ferocious tusks are sometimes portrayed, adding to her
Apart from the earliest vase, Medusa always appears winged, wearing a
short chiton and is occasionally shod in winged boots.
An animal pelt is often worn over her chiton, especially in high
archaic vase paintings.
Although snakes are not associated with the oldest Medusa image, they are
quickly adopted once they are introduced in the mid-seventh century B.C.
They frequently ring her head as snaky locks and are sometimes
attached to her belt.
Characteristic of the drawing technique of the early artist who renders
figures in their most descriptive outline, Medusa's legs are shown in
profile, while her torso and head are frontal.
In scenes of her decapitation, Medusa is almost always shown with one
knee raised and the other bent almost to the ground, usually combined with
one raised and one lowered arm to produce a swastika-like arrangement of her
limbs. Since this position
represents an early artistic convention to express swift motion, the visual
language speaks of Medusa's unsuccessful, yet valiant, attempt to flee from
By the early classical period, a less potent and more humanized image
is introduced replacing her archaic stock image.
Her earlier animal wildness is suppressed in favor of increased
femininity in terms of facial features and figure and greater passivity in
terms of character. Rather than
graphically portraying her beheading, the early classical artist now prefers
the moment immediately before, when Perseus stealthily approaches the
sleeping Medusa with weapon in hand to dispatch her.
As a transitional figure between her hideous archaic representation
and the beauty she is yet to become, this early classical Medusa inherits
the wide mouth, protruding tongue and usually broad, animal-like nose of her
monstrous predecessors. In
later portrayals, sometimes only the tip of her tongue is visible, if at
all, to help identify her heritage.
Her eyes, the source of her power, are no longer inordinately large
and intrusive due to her sleeping state, thus becoming much less significant
in her overall appearance. Her
hair is generally neatly arranged and is devoid of the snaky locks of her
earlier image. Wings remain the
telling feature of this humanized Medusa and help to identify her sub-human
status, particularly when she is indistinguishable from a beautiful woman in
the last phase of her development.
She remains dressed in the short chiton of the archaic period and is
now portrayed with bare feet.
On later vases from the fourth century B.C., her garment slips to her waist,
draping over her lower body to leave her upper torso exposed.
It has been theorized that this evolution in Medusa's facial
appearance was influenced by shield and aegis gorgoneia produced in the
classical period and in particular, by the gorgoneion appearing as a shield
device on a work by Phidias, the Athena Promachos dated around 460/450 B.C.
Certainly, the gorgoneia appearing in vase painting and in sculpture
do reveal features identified with this new transitional figure of Medusa,
occasionally displaying purely human characteristics marred only by a
Around the mid-fifth century B.C., a beautiful maiden with refined
features and seductive form initially appears in vase illustrations and is
particularly well-represented in decapitation scenes revived from the
archaic period. By the fourth
century B.C., Medusa has become a defenseless victim, whose vulnerability is
enhanced by her lovely head and figure, exposed breasts and desperate
gestures which serve to instill a new sense of tragedy into the grisly
Separately, Medusa's transformation from beast to beauty is also
reflected in illustrations which display her decapitated head, the
gorgoneion. Beginning in the
fifth century B.C., Perseus is frequently portrayed holding the gorgoneion
in his hand(s) which usually exhibits the transitional features associated
with her full-figure image from the early classical period.
Sometimes the hero carries her head while fleeing from the Gorgons or
he seems to contemplate its power when standing motionless.
Moreover, a new episode was added to the repertoire of the classical
artist which directly borrows from mythological accounts and illustrates
Perseus exposing the head of Medusa to King Polydektes, who in two of these
illustrations is turning to stone.
In contrast to her full-figure image, it is only in the fourth
century B.C. that the gorgoneion is usually represented as the head of a
beautiful woman. In that
century, its portrayal finally coincides with Medusa's full-figure image, as
both are lovely or at the very least, her unattractive features are
minimized. While new episodes
loosely borrowed from the Perseus myth and from drama are introduced which
feature the gorgoneion, Medusa's decapitated head generally remains
attractive, its beauty occasionally marred by the appearance of a lolling
tongue and/or snakes rising from the hair or knotting under the chin.
THE ARCHAIC ILLUSTRATIONS
The oldest known representation of the slaying of Medusa is found on
a Boeotian relief amphora from Thebes from about 670 B.C. (Paris, Louvre CA
795: Plate 1, fig. 1.)
Medusa appears on this amphora as a woman who has a horse body,
hindquarters and tail attached to the small of her back.
Her slim female body faces the viewer with her arms rigidly held at
either side. She wears a long
skirt belted at the waist and has dainty breasts.
Medusa's horse segment appears in profile.
Its right hind leg steps toward Perseus opposite, who strides forward
to meet the monster. Wavy lines
are incised over her skirt and horse body possibly indicating a wooly skin
and garment. Unexpectedly, the
face of Medusa is not the hideous monster of literary fame, but rather a
woman with bared teeth. Her
open mouth displays two rows of zigzag lines indicating teeth, while the
base of her nose, almost as broad as her mouth, tapers upwards to form a
squat triangular shape. Her
widely spaced eyes, the source of her power, are no more terrifying than
those of Perseus who averts his face to escape her glance.
Medusa's hair flows to her shoulders in carefully arranged locks with
bangs over her forehead.
On the left, Perseus steps aggressively toward Medusa with his head
and legs in profile and upper torso frontal.
He firmly grasps a lock of her hair in his left hand as he lays his
sword to her throat with his right.
A sword sheath hangs at his back from a baldric suspended from his
shoulder. He wears an odd
boat-shaped hat, probably the cap of invisibility he receives from the
nymphs and a short chiton. The
oblong kibisis hangs by a long strap over his right shoulder.
He is shod in wingless sandals which tie at his ankle, contrary to
their winged counterparts described by Hesiod.
His hair is worn in locks to his shoulders and his youthfulness is
indicated by his smooth, beardless face.
This youthful image is a common characteristic of Perseus in scenes
of Medusa's beheading, in contrast to his bearded image which prevails until
the fifth century B.C. in illustrations of his flight from the Gorgon
A decorative creeper behind him frames the scene on the far left,
while a delicately curved lotus or lily encloses the gruesome scene on the
right. Beyond simple framing
devices, these plants and the salamander-like creature filling the empty
space above Medusa's horse torso, probably help to localize the scene near
the mythological entrance to the underworld where the Gorgons dwelled
according to Hesiod.
This unusual equine figure of Medusa is unique among the known vase
representations and probably demonstrates the creative invention of its
early artist. Since no
full-figure depictions of Medusa had yet been formalized into a stock image
and detailed literary descriptions related primarily to her head, the artist
might have improvised her bodily appearance based on the local divinities
with whom she associated.
Moreover, since it is her centaur figure, recognized in Greek art as
a generic form for monster which primarily conveyed her frightfulness, it
was not necessary to severely distort her facial appearance in order to
visualize her grotesqueness.
Thus, the artist rendered her face in a decidedly human fashion, perhaps to
provide the womanly appeal considered necessary to attract her divine
On a fragment from a similar relief amphora also from Boeotia, only
Perseus is preserved, striding to the right with his head turned behind him
in profile (Paris, Louvre CA 937:
Plate 1, fig. 2). He is
almost an exact replica of his counterpart on the previous vase.
A sword sheath hangs at his back from a baldric and his kibisis is
carried by a strap over his right shoulder.
Both arms are outstretched toward the right, where the figure of
Medusa would be expected to stand.
His left arm is lifted slightly higher than his right, perhaps in the
same grasping gesture seen on the prior vase, while his right hand probably
held the sword. The cap of
Perseus, though missing its upward turning ends due to damage, is similar to
its counterpart, as is the arrangement of his hair and the appearance of his
garments. Given the replication
between the two Perseus figures and their Boeotian origin, it is easy to
imagine that the subject depicted is Medusa's beheading portrayed in much
the same manner as on the previous amphora.
There were no followers for this unusual equine image of Medusa;
however, certain elements contained in the presentation of the subject are
represented in later archaic vase paintings, becoming standard features
until the early fifth century B.C. when a different moment in her death is
portrayed. Such features
include the movement of Perseus from left to right symbolizing his victory
over the monster; his averted face; the sword at Medusa's throat; and, one
or more of his mythical accessories comprised of the cap of invisibility,
kibisis and sometimes winged shoes.
It is not until the late seventh century B.C. that a more traditional
image of Medusa appears on an ivory relief dedicated in the sanctuary of
Hera on Samos (Samos, Archaeological Museum E 1:
Plate 2, fig. 1). Medusa
is by far the largest figure, indicated by the huge size of her frontal head
which is tilted toward Perseus.
Her large, bulging eyes and snarling, toothy mouth with a protruding tongue
are her dominating features.
Her nose is wrinkled and nostrils are distended as they curve upward,
creating a bulbous effect.
Medusa is the hideous, terrifying creature of legend with the power to kill
at a glance. This frightful
monster is now winged and snakes rise from her head.
Perseus relentlessly thrusts his sword into her neck as he grasps one
of her snaky locks in his left hand.
Visual focus on the head of Medusa is emphasized by the tilt of her
head, indicating her collapse and inevitable death, and the upward sweep of
a feathery wing which curves inward to frame her face.
She crosses her left hand over a scaly breast probably in a gesture
of supplication, although her appeal is unheeded by the steadfast Perseus.
Decorative curls frame her face, adding emphasis to her huge eyes.
Although the stance of Perseus is similar to his counterpart on the
Boeotian amphora -- frontal torso and profile legs as he steps toward the
Medusa -- his head is now
frontally positioned. By
portraying the heads of both Perseus and Medusa full front and in such close
proximity, the artist strongly contrasts the handsome, youthful Perseus with
the hideousness of Medusa.
Perseus wears a short chiton and a pointed cap which overlaps the
frame to give him emphasis and underscore his triumph.
A strap is indicated across his chest which might hold his sword
sheath or kibisis, neither of which appears in the representation.
Due to the fragmentary nature of the relief, it is uncertain what he
wore on his feet. His shoulder
length hair is neatly combed into ringlets with tight curls across his
forehead. He is encouraged to
complete his dreadful task by a female figure who stands on the far left.
She gently touches Perseus' sword arm with her right hand, as she
looks directly toward the collapsing Medusa without harm.
This figure can only be Athena, whose staunch assistance enables
Perseus to complete successfully his terrible deed.
The scene is a dramatic illustration of the triumph of Perseus over
the monster Medusa, whose legendary frightfulness is powerfully visualized
through her exaggerated facial features, repulsive expression and
accompanying snakes. This is a
decidedly different image from the centaur maiden on the earlier Boeotian
amphora, which expressed Medusa's monstrousness through her hybrid body
rather than her grotesque face.
It is this head from the ivory relief which becomes the standard Medusa type
throughout the Archaic period until her humanized image is revived by the
classical artist, whose "hatred of ugliness" eventually transforms the
monster into a beautiful woman.
A second ivory relief from Sparta dated about 630 B.C. is similar to
the Samos ivory relief, but is much more fragmentary (Athens, National
Museum 15365: Plate 2, fig. 2).
Medusa collapses to her knees under the merciless onslaught of
Perseus, who severs her neck with the sword held in his right hand.
With his left, he grasps one of Medusa's snaky locks which swirls in
frenzy about her head. In
proportion to Perseus, Medusa is huge.
The artist has cleverly manipulated the composition to make the
Gorgon appear larger than the format allows.
Not only is her large size indicated by the enormity of her head, but
it is also suggested by her reconstructed kneeling position which enables
her figure to be contained within the spatial confines of the frame without
Medusa is the monstrous figure of legend and like her sister on the
Samos relief, tilts her head toward the figure of Perseus on the left.
Her large, round head faces forward with glaring eyes and open mouth
exposing her teeth. Fangs jut
from her lower lip underscoring her frightfulness.
A wrinkled, animal nose and protruding tongue have been added in the
reconstruction drawing, as have her torso, legs (apart from her right calf)
and her left foot to complete the features missing due to damage.
Curved wings growing from her waist sweep upward between herself and
Perseus who moves as convention dictates to the right, placing his foot on
the calf of her leg in a triumphal stance.
Her natural hair falls in straight, static ringlets to her shoulder
in contrast to her writhing snaky locks.
She is bare-footed, unlike her later images which usually portray her
As in previous representations, Perseus wears a short, fringed chiton
and possibly protective greaves for the first time.
Surprisingly, he looks directly at Medusa, contrary to mythological
accounts and pictorial representations of the beheading.
Moreover, there appears to be an outline of a beard and faint
stippling which occurs on the chin that probably indicates short, bristly
hair. Since a bearded hero is
indeed uncommon in representations of the beheading,
and Perseus rarely appears in archaic illustrations looking directly at
it is unlikely that this head fragment belongs to Perseus.
Besides the hero, the only other male figure of significance in
representations of the myth is Hermes.
As a protecting divinity, he is usually depicted looking toward
Medusa, unlike Perseus, and he almost always appears bearded.
Given that the head fragment is incorrectly identified and it indeed
represents Hermes, perhaps the god was originally positioned standing behind
Perseus on the far left looking to the right toward the center of action, in
a similar manner as the figure of Athena in the Samos relief (pl. 2, fig.
Since the actual perimeter of the relief is unknown due to its
fragmentary state of preservation, it is certainly conceivable that Hermes,
as a third figure, could have been included, replacing Athena as Perseus'
protecting divinity in this specific image.
Furthermore, the appearance of a hatless Hermes is not unprecedented
in the context of the Perseus myth, since both Hermes and Athena are
sometimes portrayed without their identifying attributes in archaic vase
Medusa's curious kneeling position in the reconstruction drawing
which shows both knees touching the ground and her left foot extending
slightly behind her right is also disputable.
Instead of both knees touching the ground, her later archaic images
always show her in a running gait with one knee bent and the other raised.
The running stance would coincide with the tilt of her head, although
her long skirt might make a bent knee position somewhat ungainly.
Medusa's running gait is distinctly portrayed on a bronze shield band
from Olympia created shortly before the mid-sixth century B.C. (Olympia B
75: Plate 2, fig. 3.)
Medusa now occupies the middle position between the flanking figures
of Perseus and Athena on the left and right respectively, thus achieving a
more balanced composition with increased focus on her centralized form.
She is a giant who would easily
dwarf both Perseus and Athena were it not for her bent knee stance which
compresses her figure into the given pictorial space in a natural fashion.
Her frontal eyes are large and glaring, mouth snarling and tongue
protruding over her lower lip to express her fearsomeness.
Her feet are bare and she wears a short, tight fitting chiton which
is belted at the waist and covered with a lozenge pattern.
A pair of downward sweeping bird-like wings with feathery tips grow
from her shoulders, contrary to the sickle-shaped wings on the previous
ivory reliefs. Her left arm
crosses her breast toward Perseus perhaps in a gesture of supplication
similar to the relief from Samos, while she seems to excitedly grasp her
thigh with the other. The
downward sweep of Medusa's wings and her hand gestures suggest her imminent
demise. Her nose is broad,
cheeks wide and full, and forehead creased between the eyes.
Curls frame her head and fall to her shoulder, while four snakes rise
from her head in a decorative manner.
Her grotesque features are flat and mask-like, probably due to the
linear patterning of the drawing which describes her features.
Apart for her sinking wings and hand gestures, she is an entirely
formalized figure who is the precursor for Medusa's running image on later
Perseus on the left is portrayed as the smooth-faced youth of prior
images, who steps toward the monster with his head averted.
He is about to plunge his sword into Medusa's neck with his right
hand, while he grasps a snaky lock with his left.
A strap crosses his chest, but it is indiscernible whether it carries
his sword sheath or kibisis which seems to appear as a small pouch at his
back. He wears a brimmed hat
over long, neatly arranged locks and a short chiton.
He is bare-footed like Medusa.
Athena stands in profile on the right and firmly grips a snake rising
from Medusa's head with her left hand, while she touches Medusa's shoulder
with her right. She actively
participates in the slaying of the monster by helping Perseus to hold Medusa
immobile, an unusual act rarely seen in other representations of this
episode where Athena is present.
The goddess stands slightly larger than Perseus and looks directly at
Medusa without registering any harmful effect from her petrifying power.
Her long hair is gathered at the neck by a band and small curls frame
her face. She wears a long,
patterned peplos with decorative trim and appears without her usual warrior
attributes of spear, helmet and aegis.
The certainty of her identification is based on the myth which
attests to her protective presence during the quest of Perseus.
As an arm band decoration for a soldier's shield, this image would be
constantly before the soldier in battle, probably giving encouragement and
Certainly, no human enemy could be more terrifying than Medusa who,
despite her fearsome power, is successfully dispatched by the heroic act of
Perseus with the assistance of Athena.
The first preserved black-figured vase portraying the beheading of
Medusa is the olpe by the Amasis Painter from the mid sixth century B.C.,
dated slightly later than the shield band just discussed (London, British
Museum B 471: Plate 3, fig. 1).
Amasis signed several of his vases with the phrase Amasis
mepoiesen or "Amasis made
me" and this vase is no exception.
His signature is written along the far left side of the scene.
The Amasis Painter has greatly elaborated on the three figure
grouping established earlier and has created a powerful image.
Medusa is ferociously portrayed with an enormous, muscular torso and
terrifying head. She attempts
to flee from the grasp of Perseus who holds her firmly by the shoulder with
his left hand, as he thrusts the sword into her throat.
Blood gushes from her neck and down her chest as the sword is driven
into its target. Medusa is shod
in wingless ankle boots and wears a short chiton embroidered along the edges
beneath a stippled fawn skin that is tied over one shoulder and belted by
two snakes. Her wings are now a
double pair, combining the upward curving, sickle wings from the earlier
ivory reliefs with the sinking, bird-like wings appearing on the shield
band. Four writhing snakes
decorate her gruesome head and hiss at the flanking figures of Perseus on
the left and Hermes on the right, who has replaced Athena as the protector
of the hero. The Amasis Painter
has cleverly incorporated a male figure as the counterpart to Perseus in
order to achieve compositional symmetry.
Being male, the figure of Hermes reflects the dress of Perseus
comprised of a short chiton, hat and boots, as well as the hero's striding
stance which would not be possible for the peplos garmented Athena.
The image of Medusa reaches its archaic apex in this vase
illustration by the Amasis Painter.
Her head is portrayed with large glaring eyes, widely distended mouth
revealing rows of teeth and ferocious tusks.
Her tongue protrudes over her lower lip, while a broad nose and a
beard complete her frightful features.
The Amasis Painter might have been influenced by sixth century B.C.
gorgoneia which included beards as a common facial characteristic, probably
to enhance grotesqueness.
This feature was not incorporated in later vase paintings portraying
the full-figured Medusa who always appears beardless in scenes of her death.
The youthful Perseus strides toward Medusa in the center, averting
his head while driving the killing blow into her neck.
He wears the cap of invisibility, depicted as a relatively flat and
wide brimmed hat which fits snugly over his short hair.
Like Medusa, he wears a nebris over his decoratively embroidered,
short chiton and he carries a large, loose, sack-like kibisis which hangs at
waist level. He wears boots
similar to those of Medusa and Hermes with tongues that curve forward over
his toes, but which are not winged.
The calm figure of Hermes on the right serves as an effective
counterpoint to the actively engaged figures of Perseus and Medusa.
His profile form steps to the left toward the center of action, as he
surveys the grisly scene before him.
He is unaffected by the sight of Medusa which attests to his
divinity. He is bearded, wears
a petasos and carries his kerykeion in his left hand, his divine attribute
which serves to identify him with certainty.
His short garment is richly decorated under a long, fringed shawl
casually slung over his shoulder.
He motions to Perseus with his downward extended right hand and open
palm, as if to encourage him to complete his gruesome deed quickly.
The high aesthetic appeal of this vase is achieved through the
delicate, precise drawing of the Amasis Painter, whose mastery of the
black-figure technique is demonstrated in the rich detailing of the figures.
His understanding of human anatomy is evidenced by the successfully
rendered profile torso of Perseus.
Medusa, however, is represented in the conventional stance of earlier
vases, with legs in profile, head and upper body full front.
This convention of drawing was deliberately included by the Amasis
Painter most likely to communicate her horrific presence in the clearest and
most dramatic manner yet devised.
A neck-amphora produced in the third quarter of the sixth century
B.C. and attributed to the Swing Painter varies somewhat in composition from
the beheading scene depicted on the previous vase (Paris, Louvre E 218 bis:
Plate 3, fig. 2). Only
two figures appear, that of Perseus and Medusa on the left and right
respectively. Medusa is
portrayed with white skin, an artistic convention to indicate a female
figure. She is the muscular
Medusa of the Amasis Painter, with powerful arms and legs.
The artist has portrayed her with profile legs, and frontal
torso/head as she attempts to flee from Perseus, judging from her bent knee
stance. She wears a short
chiton and nebris, and is bare-footed.
Her wings are enormous as they sweep downward from each shoulder,
framing her white torso against a backdrop of dark feathers.
The contour of her face is greatly distorted to accommodate her
widely distended mouth and she has bulging ears on either side of her head.
Her large eyes are widely spaced with black pupils which stare out
unwaveringly at the viewer and her bulbous nose is animal-like in
appearance, recalling the grotesque appendage of Medusa on the Samos ivory
relief (pl. 2, fig. 1). Her
long, black hair is pushed behind her ears in a natural manner and she now
lacks the snake attributes generally associated with her figure since the
Notwithstanding, her exaggerated features, wings and powerful figure,
together with the presence of Perseus, immediately identify her as the
monster of legend.
On the left, Perseus steps toward Medusa with his head averted and he
seems to grip her neck with his left hand, despite the relatively wide
distance between the two figures.
Uncharacteristically, the weapon of Perseus is not poised at the
throat of the monster, but is held horizontally at waist height and has a
curved rather than straight blade.
According to the myth, Perseus receives an "adamantine sickle" or
harpe from Hermes, a weapon which becomes more prevalent in fifth century
B.C. vase paintings, although it never completely replaces the sword.
Besides introducing the harpe, this vase is also one of the few which
portrays Perseus bearded as he dispatches Medusa, a pictorial anomaly which
remains a mystery.
An unattributed fragmentary plate dated around 530 B.C. seems to
represent a deviation from the standard image of Medusa and hints at the
transformation yet to occur (Bonn, Akademisches Kunstmuseum 62 d:
Plate 4, fig. 1). Medusa
is again white skinned indicating her female sex and she has a grinning
mouth, protruding tongue and snub nose.
However, her features are much less exaggerated and her expression
less repulsive, while the contour of her face is largely undistorted.
Her almond shaped eyes appear to be human, in contrast to the huge,
sometimes bulging orbs of her predecessors.
Her wavy hair is parted in the middle and falls loosely to her
shoulders in a natural fashion.
Although fragments of her upward curving wings add to her monster status,
the snakes which usually rise from her head are not present.
An outstretched arm clutching a short dagger-like sword represents
the only remaining feature belonging to the figure on the left who must be
Perseus, since he is the only hero in mythology known to slay Medusa.
Rather than lay the sword directly on Medusa's neck, he seems to wave
it before her face in a threatening gesture.
Given his close proximity to Medusa, he might be grasping her by the
shoulder in a gesture which is depicted on earlier vases.
A strap across his shoulder might carry his kibisis or sword sheath.
Although this late archaic representation seems to signal a more
humanized pictorial image for Medusa, her canonical figure apparently
predominates until the early classical period.
On a carefully painted hydria attributed to the Antimenes Painter
dating about 520/510 B.C., Medusa again appears as a monstrous figure, who
is reminiscent of the hideous
image portrayed on the olpe by the Amasis Painter (Rome, Villa Giulia 3556:
Plate 4, fig. 2).
However, on this hydria her collapsed state is carried a step further.
The white skinned monster falls heavily onto her right knee that now
touches the ground under the relentless onslaught of Perseus.
She grips large, writhing snakes in both hands which, though
threatening, pose no danger to Perseus as he is about to dispatch her with
his viciously toothed harpe.
Although Medusa is not the giant seen on earlier vases, she is sized
somewhat larger than the flanking figures of Perseus and Athena to the left
and right respectively. She is
rendered conventionally with legs in profile and torso/head full front
probably to communicate best her monstrousness, even though the artist has
successfully drawn the torso of Perseus in profile.
Her stock figure incorporates the double wing pair established on the
olpe by the Amasis Painter that combines the upward curving, sickle wings
with sinking, bird-like wings.
The artist has beautifully elaborated on their feathery texture, as well as
on Medusa's chiton which is delicately patterned with small star shapes.
Her short garment is tightly belted at the waist and falls in well
defined folds to the middle of her thighs.
Her attire is completed by winged ankle boots with curved tongues.
Medusa's head is decoratively framed by small, writhing snakes which
appear to attack harmlessly the left hand and arm of Perseus as he holds her
head for his killing stroke.
Unfortunately, her facial features and expression are lost due to flaking of
the glaze, but her remaining features, her black pupils, stare unflinchingly
at the viewer. Because her
stance, snake attributes, double pair of wings and powerful body strongly
resemble her counterpart on the vase by the Amasis Painter, it is likely
that her face also mirrored the repulsive expression and grotesque features
of her earlier sister.
Perseus is equally elegant in a short, decorated chiton which is worn
beneath a nebris. He averts his
head as he approaches the fallen Medusa, firmly gripping her head as her
slashes at her neck with his toothed harpe in his right hand.
He is bare-headed, revealing neatly arranged hair tied at the back of
his head with a fillet, and he is youthfully smooth-faced with refined
features. The kibisis appears
to hang loosely over his left shoulder.
To the far right, Athena stands with her feet directed to the right
as she looks back at Medusa and Perseus.
She seems to encourage Perseus with her raised right arm, as if
saluting the hero. She is the
fully armed warrior goddess with her helmet, aegis without the gorgoneion,
and spear held in her left hand.
Her aegis is fringed with small writhing snakes and is finely
textured to suggest its scaly fabric, while her long peplos falls in
straight folds to her ankles.
Her divine status is evidenced by her imperviousness to Medusa's power and
her helmet, the crest of which overlaps the picture frame.
Her rigid figure indifferently regards the gruesome scene behind her,
as if a statue rather than a living entity.
Within this standard three figure format, the animation the Antimenes
Painter achieves in his figures is unprecedented, especially the figure of
Perseus, whose graceful movement and natural form reveals a solid
understanding of the body in motion.
Moreover, his refined drawing technique creates a range of textural
contrasts which seem to add to the vitality of the figures.
Given this outstanding example of black-figured vase painting, it is
indeed unfortunate that the face of Medusa did not survive the passage of
It is not until the early classical period that this hideous archaic
Medusa is transformed into a more human-looking creature which appears with
regularity in later vase paintings.
Certainly, the fragmentary plate in Bonn (pl. 4, fig. 1), which
depicted a less grotesque face, indicates that a change in her
representation was gradually emerging, resulting in her "middle" or
transitional image about a half-century later.
THE CLASSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS
The early classical artists visualized Medusa as a woman with an
attractive, feminine figure, whose facial features alone preserve the
remnants of her earlier, monstrous appearance.
Her once almost ubiquitous snakes are no longer associated with her
classical form until they are reintroduced in fourth century B.C. vase
illustrations. Generally, the
characteristics of her early classical, "middle" or transitional image
incorporates the wide, sometimes grimacing mouth and protruding tongue of
her archaic predecessors, as well as an animal-like nose.
Her moon shaped face retains its rounded contour until the mid-fifth
century B.C. when an oval variation is introduced.
The early classical artists generally depict Medusa frontally and
wearing a short chiton which is belted at the waist.
She always appears bare-footed, unlike her archaic sisters who are
sometimes shod in winged boots.
Moreover, the archaic convention which portrayed Medusa with legs in profile
and upper torso/head full front was no longer utilized by the classical vase
painter, whose proficient drawing skills made this primitive outlining
technique redundant. By the
high classical period, the artist's mastery of perspective and complex poses
creates almost sculptural images which seem to occupy three-dimensional
space. Indeed, the traditional
frontal position of Medusa is abandoned in favor of a more subtle, twisted
pose around the mid-fifth century B.C.
Almost simultaneously, the exaggerated features of Medusa's
transitional image are eliminated and an entirely lovely creature emerges,
whose wings and short chiton alone betray her monstrous heritage.
The fifth century B.C. vase painter deviates from his archaic
predecessor in terms of the content and emphasis of his vase paintings.
In contrast to the dramatic decapitation scenes favored by the
archaic artist, these artists usually prefer subtle and suspenseful episodes
which seem to serve as a backdrop for the internal reactions of his
As a result of this changed emphasis, the suspenseful moment just
prior to the decapitation of Medusa is frequently depicted when she is
represented sleeping as Perseus creeps toward her.
This sleeping motive is first mentioned in the writings of Pherecydes
from the early fifth century B.C.:
". . .
Then (Perseus) flew to Ocean, to the Gorgons, and Hermes and Athena went
with him. He found the Gorgons
sleeping. And the Gods warned
him that he must turn away as he cut off the Gorgon's head . . .".
In this tense moment prior to her decapitation, Perseus is usually
portrayed cautiously approaching her sleeping form with weapon in hand to
severe her neck. Athena and
frequently Hermes accompany Perseus in these scenes which coincide with the
myth. The composed and resolute
figure of Athena in particular seems to serve as an effective foil for
Perseus, whose tentative creeping stance is in direct contrast to the bold
pose of his archaic image. His
figure now replaces Medusa as the central focus of most early classical
illustrations, as the artists attempt to communicate his apprehension
through the positioning of his body and sometimes by the expression on his
face. In contrast to her
archaic counterparts, Medusa is now a reclining figure who is often
relegated to an off-center position and she is usually not the predominate
figure in terms of size.
Perhaps the classical artist's lack of a "sense of ugliness" remarked
upon by Jocelyn Woodward, combined with this sleeping motive recorded by
Pherecydes, helped to generate the visualization of Medusa as more human
Certainly, in her unconscious state Medusa's petrifying power is
momentarily neutralized. Under
the guise of innocent sleep, the artists could temper her archaic
grotesqueness and beautify her image without detracting from the emphasis of
the story which is now seemingly focussed on Perseus.
In contrast to Medusa's full-figure representation which evolves into
an entirely lovely creature slightly after the mid-fifth century B.C., her
decapitated head held aloft by Perseus or Athena often continues to be
distorted by a wide mouth and lolling tongue until the end of that century.
The head is generally flat and unrealistically portrayed until the
high classical period, when it is often plastically rendered and imbued with
human emotion. During the fifth
century B.C., its facial expressions range from grotesque theatrical masks
which recall her monstrous, archaic counterparts to almost lovely, tragic
images which might reflect her beautiful full-figure representations
introduced around the middle of that century.
However rendered, these gorgoneia exhibit features more human than
monstrous, sometimes including such beautifying accessories as earrings and
diadems, perhaps to temper its ugliness and suggest an important, if not
By the fourth century B.C., the gorgoneion is generally presented as
the head of an attractive woman, whose beauty is occasionally marred by a
protruding tongue and/or snakes rising from her hair and knotting under her
A fragmentary double-sided plate produced in the second quarter of
the fifth century B.C. crudely represents this more humanized version of
Medusa, while introducing the suspenseful moment prior to her decapitation
(Athens, National Museum 10459:
Plate 5). The inner
illustration depicts Medusa asleep upon a rocky outcrop facing left with her
upper torso frontally positioned and her legs and head in profile.
One arm hangs loosely at her side and she is bare-footed.
A small tongue protrudes from her mouth over her lower lip and her
dark hair covers the forehead and left temple.
Her features are distinctly human, although her thick neck and long
jaw detract from her overall feminine appearance.
A feathery wing attached to her right shoulder opens up behind her.
She wears a short chiton belted at the waist and decorated with a
scalloped pattern at the neck line and hem.
A tree grows from the ground near her legs which possibly serves to
localize the scene near the garden of the Hesperides where the Gorgons
resided according to Hesiod, ". . . and the Gorgons who dwell beyond
glorious Ocean in the frontier land towards Night where are the clear-voiced
Hesperides . . .".
This image of Medusa is unusual because of her profile rather than
frontal head which, although unattractive, is fully human.
This apparent deviation from the traditional frontal position appears
with greater regularity after the mid-fifth century B.C., when her head is
depicted not only in profile, but also in three-quarter view in
representations of her full-figure.
In contrast, the gorgoneia are usually frontally portrayed throughout
the fifth century B.C.
The illustration on the opposite side of the plate depicts Perseus in
profile creeping presumably toward the figure of Medusa on the other side.
His firm step to the right indicates a victorious outcome according
to archaic convention, although his crouched stance suggests caution and
evokes a sense of danger. In
his outstretched right hand he holds the harpe with its curved blade, a
weapon which frequently appears in classical vase paintings rather than the
archaic straight edged sword.
He wears winged boots and a short cloak or chlamys fastened by a clasp at
his right shoulder and draped over his left arm, revealing his torso.
His kibisis is not portrayed and his hat probably appeared on the
fragment now missing. In
contrast to literary and pictorial convention, Perseus looks straight on as
he quietly creeps toward Medusa's sleeping form.
Although in archaic illustrations it is indeed rare when Perseus does
not avert his head from Medusa, in classical representations it is not
The early classical artist's apparent willingness to break with
established convention is again evidenced on two red-figured bell-kraters by
the Villa Giulia Painter, both from about 460 B.C. (London, British Museum
493: Plate 6; and, Madrid,
Museo Arqueologico Nacional 169 (11010):
Plate 7.) On both
kraters, Perseus creeps toward the sleeping Medusa with his head averted,
but now moves from right to left -- the opposite direction for the victor.
Perhaps this directional change for the hero demonstrates the general
willingness of the early classical artist to break with traditional
approaches and explore new compositional formats.
Certainly, Perseus remains victorious regardless of the direction of
On the fragmentary London krater (pl. 6), Medusa reclines frontally
on the left upon a slight incline with her eyes closed.
Her lithe, feminine body is clothed in a short, sleeveless chiton
with tight vertical pleats running the length of the garment.
Her left arm drapes over her recumbent body, while her right hangs
limply at her side. Large wings
open up behind her, framing her head and upper body and effectively
contrasting their feathery texture against the tight pleats of her chiton.
Her moon-shaped face has a wide, protruding tongue, unconvincing
fangs and an animal-like nose.
Her closed eyes are surmounted by thin eyebrows, while her hair is neatly
arranged into two round forms over each ear.
Although plain in appearance, she is definitely more human than her
monstrous, archaic counterparts.
The creeping figure of Perseus gingerly steps toward Medusa in
three-quarter view, as he extends both hands toward her recumbent form.
His harpe is held in his right hand and his head is averted.
There is no mistaking his identity since his name is inscribed above
his head. He wears his winged
hat and boots and carries his kibisis across his right shoulder.
He is the youthful figure of prior images, his wavy hair now falling
loosely to his shoulders in an informal fashion.
His features are delicately drawn and his eye is carefully rendered
with eyelid and lashes in the correct side view.
He turns his head to look at Athena behind him, perhaps to gain
courage from her resolute figure which stands in three-quarter position
facing Perseus. She raises her
right hand, probably in a gesture of encouragement, while seeming to instill
confidence through her steady gaze.
She holds her spear in her left hand which, together with her
inscription, identifies her as the warrior goddess.
She wears a diadem rather than a helmet, probably to indicate her
divine sovereignty. A himation
is fastened on her left shoulder by a large pin which pierces through its
heavy fabric. Underneath, a
pleated, sleeved garment is visible, presumably a long chiton.
Her dark hair is neatly tied at the back of her head and it falls
gently along the nape of her neck.
The figure flanking Perseus on the left is identified as Hermes by a
fragmentary inscription, as well as by his brimmed hat and beard.
He wears a short cloak which appears to be wrapped around his
shoulders. His footwear is not
visible, since he stands behind the reclining Medusa and he looks intently
toward Perseus, as if willing him to succeed in his dreadful task.
These three standing figures comprised of Perseus in the center
flanked by Athena and Hermes to the right and left respectively, seem to
converse silently with one another through glance and gesture, establishing
an intimate threesome that virtually excludes Medusa reclining below Hermes
on the left. However, the eye
is drawn to her recumbent figure by the downward slant of Athena's spear and
the reaching arms of Perseus.
Moreover, her unconscious figure is frontally positioned to command
The refined dignity and calm aloofness of the figures are
characteristic of the detached and untroubled beauty of the classical
Even Medusa is transformed into an appealing, if not entirely
attractive figure by the classical artist's penchant for beauty.
Her lovely, sinuous body with its softly clinging dress seems to
overshadow her pathetically plain features with their unconvincing fangs and
The bell-krater in Madrid also attributed to the Villa Giulia Painter
differs only slightly from the London krater (pl. 7).
As on the previous vase, the central figure of Perseus approaches the
recumbent Medusa from right to left, in contrast to archaic convention.
Medusa, who reclines to the left of Perseus, closely mirrors her
figure on the previous krater in terms of body positioning, dress and hair
style, although her wings are now folded behind her.
Whereas her body is almost identical to her previous image, her
facial expression is much less theatrical.
She lacks the unconvincing fangs of her predecessor and her tongue is
measurably smaller as it lolls from her mouth.
Her closed eyes are widely spaced with thin eyebrows and her nose is
short and animal-like.
Perseus is centrally located with his upper torso frontal and his
legs and head in profile. He
looks over his shoulder at Athena on the right, as he raises his left hand
toward the goddess, perhaps entreating her assistance.
His kibisis now hangs by two straps on his extended left arm rather
than over his shoulder, while his harpe held in his outstretched right hand,
is suspended above the head of Medusa.
He wears a sleeveless, pleated chiton and a similar winged hat of his
prior image, although he now stands behind rather than before Medusa, hiding
Athena, who flanks Perseus on the right, is almost an exact replica
of her previous figure. She is
identified by the seemingly encouraging gesture of her right hand, her spear
in her left which casually rests upon her shoulder and the diadem worn on
her head. Her dark hair, however, is styled differently in a bun at the back
of her head, rather than falling loosely down the nape of her neck.
The frontal figure of Hermes on the far left is immediately
recognized by the similar brimmed hat and beard of his previous image, as
well the kerykeion now held upright in his left hand.
His right is casually placed on his hip, a position which might have
appeared on the previous vase if not for its fragmentary state.
He turns his head to the right to watch Perseus complete his grisly
deed and perhaps convey his support through his steady gaze.
As in the previous illustration by the Villa Giulia Painter, the
dramatic focus centers on Perseus.
The hero directs almost a questioning glance toward Athena which is
suggested by his raised eyebrow and he appears to beseech the goddess for
assistance with his raised left hand, open palm and spread fingers.
This gesture not only seems to emphasize his uncertainty, but it also
distinguishes him from his prior image.
The hesitant approach of Perseus as he prepares to dispatch Medusa is
vividly portrayed on a red-figured hydria attributed to the Nausikaa Painter
dated around 450 B.C. (Richmond, Virginia Museum 62.1.1:
Plate 8.) The frontal,
reclining figure of Medusa now displaces Perseus as the central image.
Her horizontal form is flanked on either side by two pairs of upright
figures who help to balance the composition.
Compared to her body, her head appears disproportionately large, its
size further emphasized by a thick ring of lighter glaze which sets it off
from the dark background and renders it prominent.
Her features are decidedly unattractive with a dark, protruding
tongue, pug nose and closed eyes with heavy eyebrows.
Her short, wavy hair is parted down the middle and pushed behind her
ears to leave them exposed. She
wears a short, pleated chiton which is simply decorated with bands on the
sleeve and lower edge. Her
position is similar to her reclining sisters painted by the Villa Giulia
Painter, although her left shoulder, arm and wing are not portrayed.
It is conceivable that these body parts are hidden by a ground swell
as Konrad Schauenburg suggests, given the uneven contour of the land surface
which rises up to meet her body.
Medusa's single wing is half opened above her as she sleeps, while a
prominent tree with four leafy branches grows from the ground where she
lays. As previously
encountered, the tree probably helps to localize the scene in the vicinity
of the Hesperides.
As in prior vase representations, a youthful Perseus in profile
tentatively creeps toward Medusa.
He cautiously steps to the left, in the opposite direction of his
archaic counterparts. His
hesitancy is registered by his crouched position and the careful placement
of his feet as he moves toward Medusa.
Rather than firmly step toward her, he appears to slide one foot
warily ahead, as he prepares to shift his weight from his bent left leg to
his forward right foot. He
moves silently on his toes probably in order to quickly react to any change
in Medusa's sleeping state. He
holds his harpe in his outstretched right hand, positioning it directly
above her head to strike the killing blow cleanly.
On his left arm, the kibisis hangs by two straps, one tightly
clutched in his hand and the other wrapped around his upper arm.
He is bare-headed revealing short, curly hair.
Rather than avert his head from Medusa, he looks directly forward and
seems to focus his glance on Athena, who stands in profile across from
Perseus on the left. The
goddess extends her right hand toward Perseus more in a cautioning than an
encouraging gesture and she appears to watch Medusa intently for any sign of
movement, indicated by the downward cast of her eyes and slight forward tilt
of her head. She wears a chiton
which falls to the ground in long, loose folds under a himation and a helmet
whose high crest overlaps the frame, thereby emphasizing her figure.
Her spear, held in her left hand, rests against her shoulder as it
slopes downward to the recumbent monster.
A heightened sense of danger is conveyed by Athena's watchful gaze,
together with her cautioning gesture, and it is especially apparent in the
tentative, almost fearful, approach of Perseus as he prepares to dispatch
On the far right stands a youthful Hermes who is frontally positioned
with his head turned in profile to the left. His smooth-faced image is a
rare representation for the god, since he is usually depicted bearded in
scenes associated with Medusa's death.
He is identified with certainty by his kerykeion which is held in his
right hand and his brimmed hat which rests at the back of his neck.
He throws his left arm behind him, perhaps in excitement as he turns
his head to watch Perseus about to fulfill his task.
His counterpart who sits frontally on the far left behind Athena,
raises his left arm and spreads his fingers, perhaps mirroring the
excitement of Hermes. Like
Hermes, he turns his head toward Perseus to observe the outcome of his deed.
This figure is bearded and wears a sleeveless chiton with a thin band
around his head. According to
Konrad Schauenburg, he is most likely Atlas, who holds a curved staff
instead of scepter perhaps to indicate his wild nature or signal his
impersonation as a shepherd.
His presence together with the tree increases the likelihood that the
setting is indeed near or in the garden of the Hesperides.
Medusa receives strong emphasis in this particular vase painting due
in part to her disproportionately large head with its halo of light, her
frontal placement and her central positioning.
Importantly, her figure now becomes
the focal point for the looks and gestures of her surrounding figures.
The cohesiveness of this composition is in contrast to the vase
paintings the Villa Giulia Painter produced about the same time, which seem
to exclude Medusa from the intimacy of the standing figure group.
However, all three vase paintings display similar characteristics for
the monster which include a wide mouth with a protruding tongue and an
animal-like nose. Compared to
her appealing, plastically rendered body, her unattractive head is flatly
portrayed, producing a mask-like image which is enhanced by her theatrical
An innovative full-figure image of Medusa represented on a
white-ground pyxis, perhaps by the Sotheby Painter from around 460/450 B.C.
introduces revolutionary changes in the portrayal of Medusa (Paris, Louvre
MNB 1286 (L 83): Plate 9).
Perhaps due to the shape of the pyxis which allows for a frieze-like
procession of figures, the artist has included additional images who are
relevant to the scene, but are rarely portrayed in association with Medusa's
impending death. They are the
bearded god, Poseidon, identified by his trident and a Gorgon sister of
As in previous full-figure images, Medusa leans upon a rocky incline
facing left as Perseus approaches with his arm outstretched.
Her conventional frontal positioning is now replaced by a more
realistic pose which turns her body in space, almost in a sculptural manner.
Her upper torso is twisted to the right, while she turns her head
over her shoulder to converse comfortably with her Gorgon sister positioned
behind her. Medusa's relaxed
state is registered by her hands which are clasped together in a natural
fashion and her limply crossed feet.
Her left elbow rests upon a ledge and large, feathery wings open
behind her, almost encircling her head.
Her profile features describe a human, although barbarian
maiden, with small eyes, a snub nose and short, frizzy hair which
suggests an African heritage for the mythological monster.
Indeed, Medusa's African origin is recorded in various mythological
accounts which specify her home in Libya.
Importantly, the features of Medusa are not marred by a protruding
tongue or grimacing mouth and her head has lost its usually flat appearance,
becoming a natural extension of her plastically rendered body.
Her Negroid characteristics help to identify her as the monstrous
creature of legend, as do her wings and short chiton which recall her
archaic predecessors. Again, a
naturalistic tree grows from the rocky ground where Medusa reclines,
possibly localizing the scene in the vicinity of the Hesperides.
On Medusa's right, the Gorgon seems to awkwardly step toward her
sister with her body frontally positioned and her head turned in profile
over her right shoulder. She
has the same short, frizzy hair as Medusa and probably had facial
characteristics which were similar, although today they are illegible due to
the state of preservation.
Large, feathery wings attached to her shoulders open up behind her.
Her lithe body resembles Medusa's as does her short chiton which is
darkly colored to distinguish it from her mortal sister's white garment.
To the left of Medusa, Perseus is portrayed in profile stepping up
the slope which leads to her dwelling place with his arm outstretched and
his head averted. His
conventional left to right movement is reintroduced on this small pyxis,
perhaps intending to signal his victory.
He wears a chlamys and winged sandals, but it is impossible to
discern whether he carries his kibisis and harpe in this quick sketch.
A nimbus of rays emanates from his head, a rare feature which
reappears on a slightly later pelike painted by Polygnotos (New York,
Metropolitan Museum of Art 45.11.1:
Plate 10). Although
various theories for the nimbus have been suggested,
Konrad Schauenburg convincingly argues that the rays, together with the
unusual climbing stance of Perseus, links this specific painted image with
his ancient star constellation.
Behind Perseus stands the bearded Hermes facing right in profile, who
is identified by his kerykeion and wide brimmed hat which rests at the back
of his neck. He wears a chlamys
like Perseus, but is bare-footed.
He gestures to the hero with his outstretched right arm as if to show
him the way, as does Athena who frontally stands behind Hermes in a
decorated peplos. She wears a
diadem on her head, her aegis which lacks the head of the Gorgon, and holds
her spear in her outstretched left hand.
She turns her head to the right in order to monitor the ascent of
Perseus. Lastly, to the left of
Athena is the regal figure of Poseidon identified by his trident, who stands
in profile facing right. Unlike
Athena and Hermes who are involved in the action, Poseidon is simply a
spectator, his presence probably alluding to his intimate relationship with
The small size of this pyxis seems to belie its importance as the
precursor of a new artistic vision which transforms Medusa into an
attractive, wholly human entity.
Her innovative twisted pose is repeated in a later vase painting,
while her profile head is modified to a three-quarter position.
Importantly, her face is undistorted by a lolling tongue, grimacing
mouth and the occasional fangs seen in prior representations.
This breakthrough in her appearance which depicts a fully human,
although barbarian figure, heralds her transformation into a beautiful,
winged creature which initially appears in an illustration by Polygnotos
around 450/440 B.C. (New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 45.11.1:
Plate 10.) In this
elegant vase painting, Polygnotos revives the archaic beheading scene, while
he retains the early classical sleeping motive for Medusa.
Indeed, Medusa is further beautified under the guise of sleep and
remains blissfully ignorant of her doom, unlike her agonizingly aware
Rather than portrayed frontally or in profile, the head of Medusa is
drawn in three-quarter view as it gently rests against her left hand.
Her large eyes are closed, her lips are pursed together and her nose
now resembles the noble, aquiline type associated with humans, heroes and
divinities. Her lovely, almost
idealized features are well proportioned within her long and narrow face
which deviates from the rounded contour of her predecessors.
Her hair falls in loose waves below her chin and bangs rim her
forehead. Her figure facing
left is gently twisted to the right, a position apparently borrowed from the
earlier pyxis. She appears to
rest upon high ground, since she is elevated above the base line established
for Perseus and Athena, and Perseus must climb upward to reach her.
Her complete state of relaxation is registered by the attitude of her
legs with one foot crossed comfortably over the other, her languid right arm
which is folded across her body and her tilted head which is tenderly cupped
in her left hand. She is
dressed in a knee-length chiton which is elegantly decorated with geometric
patterns. Small flowering
plants enclose the scene on the left, perhaps intending to suggest a grassy
The central figure of Perseus steps up to Medusa in three-quarter
view with his head averted to the left.
He grips her hair in his left hand, while he places his harpe at the
back of her neck with his right.
Polygnotos probably derives this position of his arm from archaic
representations and incorporates as well the archaic convention to signal
the hero's triumph by his step to the right.
Once again, a nimbus of rays encircles the head of Perseus.
Although his stance is suitably modified to coincide with the action
of this scene, it certainly resembles his star constellation, an
identification which is further strengthened by the rays encircling his
Perseus wears a cloak fastened at his throat which opens up to reveal
his youthful, muscular torso.
The beauty of his face and form is effectively balanced by the lovely,
graceful figure of Medusa on the right.
The hero is shod in elegant, winged boots and wears a cap, whose
wings point in the wrong direction, perhaps due to the absentmindedness of
the artist as suggested by Marjorie Milne.
His wavy hair peeks out from under his helmet, as he looks intently
toward the stalwart figure of Athena on the left.
The goddess majestically stands facing forward as she turns her head
to the right to meet the hero's gaze.
She wears a belted peplos which falls in soft folds to her ankles and
an aegis fringed with small, writhing snakes.
Her helmet and the spear held vertically in her left hand complete
her attire. She looks directly
at Perseus as if to instill courage, while she extends her right arm in a
downward motion, perhaps to signal the killing stroke.
Although Polygnotos presents his figures in generally complex poses,
they remain highly convincing and supremely graceful images with the refined
features and calm expressions associated with the classical period.
For the first time, Medusa is presented not only as a beautiful, but
also as a vulnerable and a somewhat tragic figure, who is unknowingly
destroyed in the prime of her life.
Only her wings and short chiton recall her archaic precursors who
struggle valiantly for survival, unlike this passive and lovely figure.
Perhaps when Pindar wrote about the "fair-faced Medusa" in the early
fifth century B.C., he had a similar beautiful maiden in mind.
About a hundred year time span separates this illustration by
Polygnotos and the following known full-figure representation of Medusa,
which appears on a pelike from around 360/350 B.C. and portrays her
beheading (Leningrad, Hermitage St. 1918:
Plate 11). Differences
between this fourth century B.C. image and the previous representation by
Polygnotos are striking and seem to reflect a revival of the archaic
preference for violent action.
Apart from the stance of Perseus and the allure of Medusa which can be
traced to her prior image, the graphic scene of her beheading now displaces
the usual suspenseful moment of fifth century B.C. vase painting.
Instead of sleeping, the central figure of Medusa is actively engaged
in a desperate struggle for her survival.
She is depicted wingless for the first time since her earliest known
representation and is clothed in a peplos which has fallen to her waist
during the battle, revealing her upper torso.
With the elimination of her wings and short chiton, her link to her
earlier, powerful sisters is broken and she is presented simply as a woman.
This dramatic representation elicits a new sense of pathos which is
apparently generated by the futility of Medusa's struggle, coupled with her
feminine vulnerability that is enhanced by her semi-nudity.
She faces right in three-quarter view which seems to depict best her
female contours. The
ferociousness of the hero's onslaught is measured by the sharp angle of
Medusa's head that is snapped back by Perseus' left arm and her upper
garment which has slipped to her waist.
Unfortunately, only sketchy facial features remain which include the
black pupil of her eye, a thin eyebrow and her mouth defined by a black
line. However, these
characteristics appear undistorted by the exaggerated expression of her
early classical precursors and her head, which extends naturally from her
body, suggests a face that might be as alluring as her figure.
Her stance is relatively unstable with her left leg bent at the knee
and her right extended straight to the ground under a voluminous skirt.
She seems to thrust her body forward and away from Perseus on the
left, using her right leg as leverage in an attempt to escape from her
tormentor. She throws both arms
behind her in a desperate effort to grasp Perseus, who is undeterred by her
action. The hero is identified
by his winged boots, his hat and a vicious-looking weapon at Medusa's throat
which combines the sickle-shaped harpe with a short sword.
He averts his head from Medusa as convention dictates and steps to
the right to signal his victory.
Besides his winged boots, he wears a chlamys which drapes over his
outstretched left arm.
The profile male figure facing Medusa on the right is probably Hermes
since he frequently appears in scenes associated with Medusa's death,
although his identifying attributes are not included.
He looks directly at her struggling figure without being harmed by
her, thereby attesting to his divinity.
He wears a closely fitting cap and a chlamys fastened at his right
shoulder which drapes across his left arm to reveal his torso beneath.
He is youthfully smooth-faced, a rare portrayal for Hermes in scenes
associated with the death of Medusa.
He extends his right arm toward Perseus and behind Medusa, perhaps in
a gesture of encouragement.
A similar hopeless struggle appears on a relief rhyton fragment from
the third quarter of the fourth century B.C. (Bonn, Akademisches Kunstmuseum
1764: Plate 12.)
The figure of Medusa in particular resembles her image on the
Leningrad pelike in terms of body positioning and dress.
She is located to the right of Perseus in this fragmentary two figure
group in a three-quarter position which seems to present her lovely form
best. Although her precarious
bent-leg extended-leg stance resembles her previous image, she falls to the
ground rather than remains upright.
Her left knee touches the rocky surface, as her right stretches
almost horizontally behind her.
As in the previous pelike, her garment slips to her hips to reveal her upper
torso, while one end sweeps behind her and over her raised left arm.
The linear folds of the fabric create an effective contrast with the
rounded smoothness of her body modelled in relief, as does the large,
feathery wing folded behind her.
The seductiveness of her figure is enhanced not only by these
contrasting elements, but also by the sensuous curve of her body as Perseus
pulls her head back by the hair to restrain her forward movement.
A large snake rises from beneath her left knee and a number of these
small, writhing reptiles emerge from her hair.
For the first time since the archaic period, snakes are again
associated with Medusa.
However, they seem to be decorative elements rather than images to enforce
her power. Regardless of their
function, these snakes together with her wings identify her with certainty
as Medusa. She looks upward,
focussing her eyes on the heavens and raises her right hand, as if
beseeching divine intervention.
The calm expression of her lovely face with its aquiline nose and closed
mouth seems to belie the desperateness of her situation, as she grasps the
weapon arm of Perseus with her right hand in a vain attempt to hinder his
onslaught. However, the firm
grip of the hero's left hand on her hair is unbroken and his right, probably
holding the weapon (now missing), is undeterred as it extends toward her.
His frontal figure aggressively steps to the right and he averts his
head according to convention.
He wears only his hat, revealing a youth with an attractive, muscular torso
rendered in relief. It is
probable that an accompanying figure(s) appeared on this rhyton, given the
frequent portrayal of his protecting goddess/god in prior images.
However, it cannot be determined with certainty, due to the
fragmentary state of the vase.
Rather than unique visualizations of Medusa, these illustrations from
the fourth century B.C. seem to reflect the late classical trend in art
which emphasized human emotion and in particular, the suffering of the
Certainly, the figure of Medusa, who is engaged in a futile and
violent struggle, provokes a strong sense of pathos which distinguishes
these beheading scenes from all prior decapitation episodes.
By featuring Medusa as an attractive and vulnerable woman, she
evolves into a defenseless victim who is powerless to deter the seemingly
unwarranted onslaught of Perseus.
Perhaps this wide divergence between her fourth century B.C.
pictorial image as a helpless woman and her literary description as a
terrifying and dangerous beast, contributed to the virtual disappearance of
her full-figure representations in vase illustrations by the end of that
While the evolution of Medusa from a hideous monster into a
beautiful, winged maiden can be pinpointed to the illustration by Polygnotos
slightly after the mid-fifth century B.C., a lovely visage is not usually
associated with the gorgoneia held aloft by Perseus or Athena until the next
century. Throughout the fifth
century B.C., images of Medusa's decapitated head remain frontal and
generally exhibit lingering transitional characteristics which include a
wide mouth, protruding tongue and sub-human nose.
The hair is generally short and sometimes dishevelled, perhaps to
stress its unattractive appearance.
Around the mid-fifth century B.C., the head begins to express human
emotion, just when the transitional features become less prominent.
In most of these later images, the eyes are depicted open instead of
closed, a motive which is first introduced in association with the
petrification of Polydektes.
Not only do the open eyes give credence to Medusa's mythological power, but
they also become key features for the communication of an emotional state.
In three of the four early classical vase illustrations which depict
Medusa's decapitated head within the context of the Perseus myth, the
transitional characteristics are vividly represented.
The first of these images appears on a red-figured hydria, the
name-piece of the Perseus Painter from around 470/460 B.C. (Berlin:
Staatliche Museum F 2377:
Plate 13.) Only Athena
and Perseus are illustrated, to the left and right respectively.
They appear to be involved in intense discourse, given their locked
gazes and insistent gestures.
Perhaps this illustration represents the moment when Perseus surrenders the
gorgoneion to Athena, who adopts it as a blazon on her aegis.
Perseus holds the head of Medusa frontally in his lowered left hand
by the hair, as he turns his head over his right shoulder to look at Athena.
The gorgoneion is pathetically homely.
Rather than round, the facial contour is square with wide cheeks, a
receding chin and a broad forehead.
The tongue lolls uncontrollably out the side of a wide, toothy mouth
and the closed eyes are surmounted by thick, arched eyebrows.
The hair is parted down the middle to fall in straight, stringy
strands below the chin, while the long nose with its flared nostrils
deviates from the more animal-like renderings of early classical full-figure
images. However, despite these
generally distorting characteristics, the overall impression of the face is
less monstrous than tragic, as if its features were altered at the moment of
death and forever frozen in this exaggerated expression.
The frontal figure of Perseus with his averted head is identified
with certainty by his winged hat, the harpe held in his right hand at his
chest, and his kibisis which hangs by a strap over his left shoulder and
another across his upper left arm.
He is shod in wingless sandals with dark horizontal straps and he
wears a pleated, short chiton.
His hair is styled differently than in prior images, with curled strands
hanging over his ear to his chin and a bun at the back of his head.
Athena faces Perseus in profile on the left, removing her helmet with
her left hand and stretching her right toward Perseus, as if demanding he
relinquish the head. She wears
a diadem, her aegis fringed with small snakes and a himation over a long
chiton. The features of Athena
and Perseus are almost interchangeable given the simple drawing technique of
the artist, who uses the same basic shapes to indicate their
Athena's non-verbal request, Perseus seems reluctant to release his prize.
He protectively moves the gorgoneion away from Athena to the far
right, while he raises his right elbow to his chest, as if to block her
insistent gesture. Although the
outcome of this battle of wills is uncertain based on this particular image,
it can be assumed that Athena perseveres.
In contrast to the somewhat tragic-looking Medusa head of the prior
image, a gorgoneion on a red-figured pelike attributed to the Pan Painter
from about 470 B.C. achieves a decidedly different effect (Munich,
Antikensammlungen 8725: Plate
14). Only the figure of Perseus
is portrayed with legs and head in profile and torso frontally positioned.
He stands motionless as he holds the round head of Medusa in both
hands at chest level. He wears
a short, pleated chiton, a chlamys which has slipped from his shoulders onto
his arms, a wingless cap and boots with curved tongues.
Neither his harpe nor his kibisis is depicted, yet this figure is
unmistakably Perseus, given the presence of Medusa's decapitated head.
The hero turns his head over his right shoulder, not daring to look
at his prize.
The gorgoneion is decidedly ugly.
It appears with closed eyes and has an animal-like nose, a dark
protruding tongue and a toothy mouth.
A fleshy fold is depicted below the mouth which extends from ear to
ear, as if a large double chin.
The closed, widely spaced eyes are framed by thin eyebrows, while small
furrows indicated by short, angular lines appear on its brow.
Curls ring the face and a diadem is worn on its head, while the ears
are decorated with small earrings, suggesting an important, if not royal
personage. The head is flatly
depicted and the exaggerated expression with its rounded contour suggests a
theatrical mask. Although the
repulsive expression recalls archaic images, the features and facial
contours are much less distorting and certainly less hideous.
Another red-figured hydria attributed to the Pan Painter from the
same period, portrays the head of Medusa peeking out from the kibisis
carried by the fleeing Perseus (London, British Museum E 181:
Plate 15). The headless,
frontal torso of Medusa positioned between Perseus and Athena has collapsed
to the ground, revealing a lovely, feminine body clothed in a short chiton
which is reminiscent of her full-figure images.
Her legs are bent behind her on the ground, while the trunk of her
body is held momentarily upright by the tips of her fingers as blood gushes
from her severed neck. Her
large, feathery wings seem to flutter behind her as her life source drains
away. A portion of the just
decapitated head peeks out from the kibisis that Perseus carries over his
right shoulder as he makes his escape.
The closed eyes of the gorgoneion already reflect the effect of death
and a diadem is worn over its curly locks in a similar manner as the
previous image, perhaps signalling her sovereignty.
The profile figure of Perseus swiftly flees toward the left in his
winged hat and boots with both arms outstretched before him, as he looks
back over his shoulder at the headless torso behind him.
In his left hand he carries his harpe.
His short chiton is ideal for swift movement, judging from the length
of his stride which is directed to the left, the opposite direction
established for the victor in archaic representations.
According to Karl Schefold, the movement of Perseus toward the left
after the completion of his gruesome deed probably symbolizes his return
home, as well as defeat for the pursuing Gorgons.
Athena follows Perseus on the right in three-quarter view with a
profile head. She gracefully
balances her spear on shoulder with her right hand, while she daintily lifts
the hem of her skirt with her left.
She wears a plain aegis which is fringed with small snakes, a
high-crested helmet and a long, patterned chiton with transparent fabric
that reveals the contour of her leg.
Although the gorgoneion is only partly visible, it can be assumed
that the hidden features resemble its mask-like predecessor, given the same
attribution to the Pan Painter for both images.
Moreover, the characteristics which are visible reveal similar
features which include the diadem, closed eyes with thin eyebrows,
animal-like nose and curly hair.
On a kylix-krater attributed to the Mykonos Painter from around 460
B.C., the head of Medusa introduces the staring, open eyes which become a
common feature in later gorgoneia representations, while it exhibits Negroid
characteristics which can probably be associated with her Libyan origin
recorded in various mythological accounts (Catania, Museo Biscari 1677 (L
697): Plate 16).
The return of Perseus to Seriphos and his confrontation with King
Polydektes is portrayed in this early classical vase painting.
The frontal figure of the hero displays the gorgoneion, held in his
left hand by the neck, to Polydektes enthroned on the right.
The King is identified by his scepter and crown, as well as by his
elegant dress. Both Athena on
the left and Polydektes on the right are turned in profile toward the
central figure of Perseus, who glances over his shoulder toward the goddess
to avoid looking at the head.
Presumably, the petrifying effect of the head is about to occur, since
Polydektes has not yet begun his transformation into stone.
The gorgoneion displays the exaggerated expression associated with
Medusa's transitional image which includes a round, frontal face, a wide
mouth which stretches from ear to ear and a long, protruding tongue
extending over her chin.
However, its staring, cat-like eyes, snub nose with distended nostrils and
short, frizzy hair suggest an African heritage and serves to establish a
human, rather than a monstrous lineage despite the repulsive expression.
The Mykonos Painter emphasizes the power of Medusa's glance by
portraying the eyes as staring orbs with upper and lower lids and large,
black pupils. Especially in
this scene which depicts the petrification of Polydektes, the open eyes of
Medusa are key elements in the visual drama, a feature which seems to become
standardized in following vase illustrations.
Perseus stands quietly in the center holding his harpe in his right
hand that is relaxed at his side.
He wears a brimmed hat, winged boots and a chlamys fastened at his
right shoulder which covers his torso and falls to a point between his
knees. He meets the gaze of
Athena standing in profile on the left, who exchanges glances with the hero.
Her plain aegis is fringed with small, writhing snakes and a himation
is worn over her peplos. Her
helmet is pushed back on her head to reveal her forelock, while her wavy
hair falls loosely to the middle of her back.
She holds her spear vertically in her left hand, while her right
appears to be casually placed on her hip judging from the position of her
fingers at her waist. Facing
Perseus on the far right in a long, pleated garment sits the bearded figure
of Polydektes, whose stare is directed upward at the gorgoneion.
He realizes his danger too late, indicated by the backward tilt of
his body as he seems to recoil from the head, his left hand which suddenly
looses its grip on his scepter and his left foot which is lifted from the
ground at the heel, as if startled by what he sees.
Only slightly later around 450/440 B.C., the transitional features so
graphically portrayed in the previous image are lessened, if not entirely
eliminated on a bell-krater attributed to the Polydektes Painter (Bologna,
Museo Civico 325: Plate 17).
In a parallel development, the full-figure image of Medusa is
transformed into a lovely, winged maiden (pl. 10).
However, the peaceful image of Medusa asleep in the pelike
illustration by Polygnotos is in stark contrast to the open-eyed and rather
tragic looking gorgoneion portrayed on this bell-krater.
Perseus stands in the center with his head in profile and torso
frontal as he looks toward Polydektes sitting on the right.
He holds the gorgoneion in his extended right hand at head level.
This frontal gorgoneion departs from prior transitional images to
become a lovely, mourning woman with an oblong face, heavily lidded eyes and
pinched brows. Its wavy hair is
parted in the middle to neatly frame the head.
The outlines of features appear faint due to flaking; however, they
seem to indicate a long, aquiline nose and a small mouth which appears to be
sized in proportion to the human contours of her face.
Perhaps a small tongue protrudes from the mouth to provide the single
link to her earlier sisters and continue the trend which associates
transitional features with fifth century B.C. gorgoneia.
Perseus watches without compassion the horrifying transformation of
Polydektes whose feet and lower garment have already merged with the rock
that serves as his throne. The
King seems to plead for mercy with his raised right hand and open palm which
is directed toward the hero.
Polydektes is portrayed as a commoner rather than royalty, evidenced by his
plain himation which is wrapped around his lower torso and over his left
shoulder. His balding head and
straggly beard and hair help to convey his vulnerable and pitiful state.
In contrast to Polydektes, Perseus is presented as the victorious
hero who is elegantly attired in his winged helmet, boots, chlamys and a
pleated chiton which is decorated along the lower edge and sleeve.
Two spears are held in his left hand rather than his usual harpe
which, although unsuitable for beheading Medusa, might serve to indicate his
Athena on the left stands in a new dramatic pose in her peplos and
plain aegis. She rests her left
foot upon a rock, places her left elbow on her raised knee and her chin in
the heel of her hand. She looks upon the scene with an aloof calmness which
can be associated with the classical period, while her informal, casual
stance is in contrast to her usually rigid pose.
Her helmet is pushed back on her head and her spear rests against her
right shoulder as it slants down to the ground.
Although the petrifying power of Medusa is made obvious by its effect
on Polydektes, the attractive face seems to belie this power, while the
sorrowful expression establishes its connection to the human, emotional
In a slightly later illustration on a plate dated from about 440
B.C., a sad-looking gorgoneion is again portrayed in a scene unrelated to a
specific mythological episode (Olympia, Museum at Olympia:
Plate 18). The frontal
figure of Perseus with his head in profile stands alone holding the head of
Medusa by the hair in his outstretched right hand at chest height.
The gorgoneion is portrayed with an oval, rather than a round head
and displays large, staring eyes with small, black pupils and raised
eyebrows which seem to convey a somewhat sorrowful expression to her face.
The nose is defined by two ridges and its tongue lolls from the mouth
almost to the chin. The
dishevelled hair is short, revealing two small ears.
Perseus turns his head toward the right to avoid looking at the
gorgoneion. His brimmed hat has
slipped from his head and rests at the back of his neck.
He carries two spears in his left hand rather than the more common
harpe and wears only a chlamys which is draped over the left side of his
torso and fastened on his right shoulder.
His dark hair is closely cropped and a large eye depicted in profile
stares into the distance. Due
to the fragmentary state of the plate, his footwear cannot be determined.
The rather sad gorgoneion appearing in previous images becomes a
dispirited death-mask on an oinochoe illustrated by the Shuvalov Painter
dated around 430 B.C. which portrays the flight of Perseus
(Ferrara, Museum Nazionale 2512:
Plate 19). The hero
rapidly moves toward the left in three-quarter view with his legs and head
in profile. His harpe is
grasped in his outstretched right hand and the gorgoneion is clutched in his
lowered left which he holds out behind him by the hair.
The head of Medusa is broad through the cheek and narrow at the chin
with a small, open mouth and a tiny, lolling tongue.
The nose appears to be human, as do the small, open eyes which seem
glazed and frozen by the effect of death.
A sense of weariness is conveyed by the thin, slightly arched brows
and drooping lower eyelid.
Perseus grasps the head by its wild, curly locks reminiscent of small,
writhing snakes as he leaps upward.
The force of his movement is reflected by the backward sweep of his
kibisis appearing as a large, loose sack at his back.
A sword sheath hangs on an angle at his left hip and he wears his
winged hat and boots. A chlamys
fastened at his neck opens up to reveal his nude, muscular torso.
His youthful face with refined features follows the upward angle of
his extended left arm, as if anticipating the destination of his flight.
The frontal figure of Athena stands resolutely behind Perseus looking
toward the oncoming Gorgon on the right, with her left hand on her hip and
her right holding her spear vertically near its bronze tip.
She wears a helmet with a long, horse hair crest that is pushed back
on her head. A long, pleated
chiton is visible under her himation which is fastened by a round clasp on
her left shoulder. As the
divine protector of Perseus, she stands fearlessly between his fleeing
figure and the pursuing Gorgon, whose swift approach is measured by her long
stride and the backward sweep of her large, feathery wing and short skirt of
her chiton. Her right arm is
outstretched before her, while her left is extended behind her, mirroring
the arm positioning of Perseus.
The Gorgon is lovely, indeed resembling the beautiful, full-figure image of
Medusa portrayed by Polygnotos slightly earlier in terms of her attractive
body and head (pl. 10). She is
clothed in a short chiton which is belted at the waist, while a shoulder
cord crisscrosses her chest to hold the chiton in place as she runs.
Unfortunately, her internal facial features are illegible due to
flaking of the glaze, but her silhouette reveals a long, aquiline nose,
human mouth and well-proportioned head.
Her body in three-quarter view is plastically rendered and its
feminine contours are described by the softly pleated fabric of her garment.
In contrast to the fine draughtsmanship of the Shuvalov Painter, who
animates his figures through his solid understanding of the human body in
motion, the images on the following Campanian amphora attributed to the
Owl-Pillar Group appear heavy and lifeless (Leningrad, Hermitage Museum 2077
(B 1026): Plate 20).
Although dated to the third quarter of the fifth century B.C., the
flat, mask-like impression of the gorgoneion resembles early classical
images, as does the emotionless face.
The scene depicts the petrification of Polydektes, who stands in
three-quarter view to the right of Perseus.
The hero stiffly steps toward Polydektes with profile legs/head and
frontal torso which recalls the primitive outlining technique of the archaic
artist, in contrast to the sophisticated three-quarter views frequently
appearing in Attic vase painting from the classical period.
He carries the gorgoneion high above his averted head in both hands
by the neck, as if a trophy.
Apart from the protruding tongue, Medusa's frontal head exhibits almost
entirely human characteristics which are described by a flat, linear design
indicating the open eyes, thin eyebrows, long nose and a mouth that is
defined by two lines extending from the nose.
Its dark hair seems to be neatly parted down the middle and is shaped
into waves around the head, while a small ear appears unnaturally high on
the side of the head. Its oval
face contributes to the human appearance of the head, although a distinct
mask-like effect is achieved by the linear patterning of the features which
are flatly conceived and devoid of emotion.
Perseus is depicted as a beardless youth with closely cropped hair,
who wears a chlamys that is draped over his left arm and a brimmed hat that
hangs at the back of his neck.
In an unusual portrayal, his nude torso describes a lanky, emaciated figure
which lacks the beauty and anatomical correctness of his prior images.
Although his kibisis, winged boots and harpe are not portrayed, the
identification of this figure is certain, based on the episode which is
represented. In contrast to
Perseus, the bearded Polydektes displays a solid, mature torso which is
wrapped in a himation around his lower torso and over his left shoulder to
reveal his chest. He stares up
toward the gorgoneion with his right arm outstretched, perhaps in a pleading
gesture directed at Perseus as he realizes his terrible fate.
Already, the lower portion of his legs and feet have turned to stone.
The semi-nudity of his figure seems to heighten the contrast between
living flesh and the inanimate stone he is in the process of becoming.
By the early fourth century B.C., the image of the gorgoneion usually
appears as the head of an attractive woman which is occasionally displayed
in profile or three-quarter view.
Sometimes only Medusa's small, protruding tongue or the snakes rising
from her head link it with the legendary monster.
Moreover, two new scenes are introduced which provide an alternative
format for the exhibition of the gorgoneion.
Conceived by South Italian vase painters, these scenes possibly
portray rare episodes from the myth not illustrated elsewhere or are
inspired by Attic plays which were popular in these Greek colonies.
One of these new episodes portrays Perseus contemplating the
reflection of Medusa's decapitated head in the shield of Athena or a pool of
Although no preserved mythological
account describes this specific event, the reflection motive is familiar
through the writings of Pherecydes and later of Apollodorus in the context
of Medusa's beheading.
Perhaps the South Italian artists favoured this reflection motive on
its own, purposely extracting it from the dramatic beheading scene and
presenting it as the main subject in a quieter moment, when Perseus is able
to study the features of Medusa before Athena places the head on her aegis.
The second episode depicts Perseus exhibiting the gorgoneion to
satyrs, who sometimes cover their eyes or flee in fright.
Although mythological accounts record a violent battle between
Perseus and Dionysos, whose army was composed of maenads and satyrs, the
creatures depicted in these scenes are not engaged in battle, nor are they
provocatively equipped with weapons.
More likely, this episode is derived from the satyr-play which was
attached to Attic tragedies as a form of comic relief.
Unfortunately, only a few of them are preserved and then usually in
fragments, while more than one hundred are known only by title and a few
These new episodes originating in the Greek colonies of South Italy
are depicted on a number of vases surviving from the fourth century B.C.,
perhaps indicating their popularity as the more familiar subjects from the
previous century seem to become less prevalent.
Already around the beginning of the fourth century B.C., significant
deviations from the standard representation of the gorgoneion established in
the prior century are apparent.
On two red-figured cups from about 400 B.C., Perseus flees from the pursuing
Gorgon with the head of Medusa held in his extended right hand at waist
height (Strassburg, University Museum 1574:
Plate 21, figs. 1, 2; and, Taranto, Museo Nazionale:
Plate 21, figs. 3, 4).
Given the similarity between the two representations, it is probable that
the same painter or workshop produced the images.
Importantly, in both these illustrations the head of Medusa is
depicted in profile for the first time since the early classical period.
Furthermore, it also appears to be devoid of its usual transitional
features associated with fifth century B.C. gorgoneia.
The silhouette does not reflect a protruding tongue or the wide, open
mouth usually appearing in fifth century B.C. images; instead it reveals the
head of a woman. The short hair
is brushed forward on the cheek and its apparently open eye is surmounted by
a delicately arched eyebrow. In
both images, Perseus holds the head by the hair in his left hand, rather
than by the neck, while he carries his harpe behind him in his outstretched
right. Apart from his harpe,
his usual attributes are not portrayed.
He turns his head behind him as he makes his escape, possibly to
gauge the distance between himself and his pursuer.
His chlamys which is fastened on his right shoulder falls to a point
between his striding legs.
Illogically, his hair flows to the right, in the direction of his movement
and is not pushed back by the wind as it would occur in an actual situation.
On the reverse side, a winged, fully human Gorgon pursues Perseus
with both arms extended before her.
In a rare representation, her short chiton is replaced by a long
peplos which swirls behind her to suggest swift movement.
Indeed, her figure resembles a Nike figure without her usual wreath
attribute and not the familiar Medusa/Gorgon figures of fifth century B.C.
illustrations. Perhaps the
Italian vase painter, unfamiliar with the old Perseus legend, confuses the
pursuing Gorgon with the winged Nike which was a more common art type.
On an Apulian pelike attributed to the Tarporley Painter from around
400/380 B.C., Perseus studies the head of Medusa reflected in Athena's
shield before it is committed to the aegis of the goddess (Taranto, Private
Collection: Plate 22).
Although only one of several South Italian vases which illustrate
this scene, the image on this pelike provides the main elements of the
subject and presents a gorgoneion which is representative for the series in
terms of its human appearance, if not its beauty.
The frontal gorgoneion is the head of a lovely woman, whose small,
protruding tongue and snakes which emerge from the hair serve to identify
its monstrous heritage. The
broad face is distinctly human with open, almond-shaped eyes surmounted by
eyebrows that are sharply articulated ridges, a nose which widens toward the
nostrils and a small mouth with sensitively shaped lips.
Its cold stare is transfixed outward and despite the lolling tongue,
it seems to present an idealized beauty.
Rather than flat and mask-like, the head is subtly modeled,
suggesting eyes recessed in sockets and an indentation of the nostrils and
lower lip. The hair is
presented as a mass which is gently waved around the head, covering its
ears. A vague reflection of
Medusa appears in Athena's shield, however, the features are illegible.
Athena sits facing right in the center on an elevated level flanked
by Perseus and Hermes to the left and right respectively.
She lifts the gorgoneion high above her head with her right hand in
order to reflect it in her large shield resting on the ground and tilted
toward Perseus. The goddess
casually crosses one foot over the other, as she twists her upper torso
toward the left to look over her right shoulder at Medusa's reflection.
She holds a spear upright in her left hand and wears a fillet on her
head rather than her helmet.
Her attire is elegantly described, from her tightly pleated, long chiton, to
the loose folds of her himation and the scaly fabric of her aegis which is
decorated with the Gorgon's head -- a pictorial inconsistency since she
holds it in her hand.
The nude figure of Perseus stands in profile on the left facing
Athena, as he leans his left elbow on a pillar draped in fabric, perhaps his
chlamys. He wears an elaborate winged hat on his head and carries his weapon
in his lowered right hand. He
gazes unemotionally at the reflection of the gorgoneion in Athena's large
shield. His slim and supple
body resembles that of Hermes on the far right, who wears only his brimmed
hat and carries his kerykeion in both hands, as if twirling it between his
fingers. Portrayed in
three-quarter view, he too leans heavily on a pillar with his left arm,
crossing one foot over the other as he looks toward the hero.
Although a leafy tree and patterned stones seem to indicate a
country-side location, the pillars do not coincide with the outdoor scene.
Rather than part of the landscape, they seem to be included primarily
as props for Perseus and Hermes in order to better display their languid
This almost theatrical manipulation of figures and background is
again demonstrated on a slightly later bell-krater from around 370 B.C.
portraying Perseus exhibiting the gorgoneion to a satyr who covers his eyes
in fright (Bonn, Akademisches Kunstmuseum 79:
Plate 23). Probably
inspired by a satyr-play, the tone of the scene is certainly less serious
than prior illustrations which are borrowed directly from the myth.
Moreover, the rather overstated contrapposto stance of Perseus and
the exaggerated gestures of the satyr seem to confirm its derivation from a
The gorgoneion held by Perseus in his raised right hand appears as an
attractive woman with an oval face in three-quarter view, whose only link to
the monstrous Medusa of legend is established by the snakes which rise from
behind the ears and knot around the neck.
Rather than the cold stare and idealized beauty of the prior image,
this head has a tragic expression which is conveyed by the furrowed
forehead, pinched eyebrows and pursed lips.
Medusa's huge, open eyes with large, black pupils stare sorrowfully
outward and exhibit an animation that belies her death.
The wild disorder of the short, wavy hair with its writhing snakes
seem to enhance this liveliness.
Perseus standing frontally on the right holds up the decapitated head
with his right hand, while he carries his harpe in his left that rests at
his side. He gazes forward,
thus avoiding the glance of Medusa.
He wears the elaborate, winged headdress of his previous image and a
chlamys that is fastened at his neck and pushed back over his shoulders to
reveal his slim torso. A
baldric that holds his sword sheath at the level of his left hip hangs
across his chest. To the far
right, an owl hovers near his head carrying a wreath in its claws, perhaps
an allusion to his protecting goddess, Athena.
The contrapposto stance of Perseus appears staged in this modest vase
painting, although it coincides with the exaggerated gestures of the satyr
on the left. This sub-human
follower of Dionysos is immediately recognized by his total nudity, his
animal tail and ears, as well as his straggly beard as he runs toward the
immobile figure of Perseus on the right.
He lowers his head as he covers his eyes with his left hand and
extends his right high above his head, perhaps in a gesture of fright or
surprise. He appears to be
unaffected by the petrifying power of Medusa, although he clearly registers
his dismay. A leafless tree
occupies the center, while a few tendrils rise from the ground to establish
a rather bleak landscape.
A third variation of the fourth century B.C. gorgoneion appears on a
Lucanian amphora attributed to the Choephoroi Painter from the third quarter
of that century (Copenhagen, National Museum 3407:
Plate 24). The
gorgoneion appears once again as a woman's head, but it is now devoid of all
distorting features, as well as its snake attributes.
The head is frontally positioned with closed eyes that are
reintroduced from early classical gorgoneia and it has a long nose with
slightly flared nostrils, pursed lips and short, curly hair framing its oval
face. The calm expression does
not suggest the violence of her death, nor do eyes convey their deadly
power. Rather, it appears as if
The central figure of Perseus stands frontally with the gorgoneion
held in his lowered left hand and his weapon in his raised right.
Without turning his head, he looks toward Athena standing on the left
by shifting his eyes toward her.
He wears his winged hat and boots, as well as a chlamys fastened at
his neck with a round clasp that is thrown back over his shoulders to reveal
his lithe, youthful torso. His contrapposto stance seems somewhat staged in
this conventional scene which recalls the petrification of Polydektes.
Athena stands facing Perseus in three-quarter view with her head in
profile holding a spear vertically in her left hand and placing her right at
her waist. She wears a peplos
which softly clings to her figure, an elaborate necklace and several
bracelets on her arms, as well as a decorated band around her head.
A large shield placed on the ground rests against her thigh.
An elderly, bearded man approaches from the right seemingly without
concern, as he looks toward the gorgoneion from his side position.
He wears a plain himation which is wrapped over his right shoulder
and around his lower torso and carries a staff held in his left hand,
perhaps for support. Although
his right arm crosses his chest, his gesture and face do not register either
surprise or fear, unlike the excited images of Polydektes in prior vases.
Based on the quieter tone of the image rather than hard evidence,
Konrad Schauenburg suggests that this figure is Diktys, the kindly fisherman
and brother of King Polydektes who initially discovered Danäe and Perseus on
Within the classical period, then, the humanization of the gorgoneia
achieves its apex in the fourth century B.C., when a lovely visage is
portrayed with greater regularity.
Not only does the head deviate from its usual frontal position in
that century, but it also loses its transitional features, apart from the
small, protruding tongue which sometimes lingers in late classical images.
Additionally, the snakes that were commonly associated with Medusa's
archaic, full-figure representations sometimes now appear with fourth
century B.C. gorgoneia, perhaps to establish a link with her monstrous past
as her face becomes increasingly beautiful.
Apart from the earliest image on the Boeotian relief amphora (Louvre
CA 795: Plate 1, fig. 1), on
archaic and classical vases the gorgon Medusa from the Perseus myth is
always represented as a demon in female form, rather than a mixed-being such
as sphinx or siren. Her female
image, however, does not remain constant, but undergoes a striking evolution
which transforms her usually hideous and terrifying appearance in the
archaic period into that of a beautiful, but powerless adversary of Perseus
in late classical vase paintings.
This evolution is traced in both her full-figure representations and
in portrayals of her decapitated head held aloft by Perseus or Athena, and
is distinguished by three distinct stages.
These stages are illustrated best in vase paintings depicting scenes
of her beheading or the moment just prior to her death.
The first stage, associated with archaic representations of her
beheading, usually depicts Medusa with grotesque facial features, large
wings and snakes rising from her hair or attached to her belt.
Her huge, sometimes bulging eyes and open, distended mouth are given
emphasis -- her eyes probably because of their petrifying power and her
mouth possibly because of its close association with her voice.
Indeed, Medusa appears to be emitting a ferocious roar as she
attempts to flee from her assassin in these violent scenes of her death.
By the early classical period, the second stage is introduced which
presents a more humanized image with various distorting features that
include an open mouth, a protruding tongue and a sub-human nose.
During this transitional or "middle" phase, Medusa retains her
archaic wings, but loses her snake attributes.
Her increasingly human appearance seems to coincide with a shift in
subject matter. The monster is
now depicted asleep and unaware of Perseus as he approaches to dispatch her,
in contrast to the graphic scenes of her beheading represented in the
archaic period. By portraying
Medusa with her eyes closed, the petrifying power of her glance is
effectively neutralized and her once terrifying appearance now gives way to
a more human-looking image.
Perhaps this new portrayal of Medusa in a sleeping state helped to generate
her image as a seemingly harmless woman instead of a dangerous beast.
Medusa's emergence as a beautiful, winged maiden which initially
occurs around the mid-fifth century B.C., introduces the last or "beautiful"
stage (New York, MMA 45.11.1: Plate 10).
In this phase, episodes of her decapitation replace the more
suspenseful approach scenes of early classical vase paintings.
Medusa is now portrayed as an attractive woman who sometimes appears
without her identifying short chiton and wings.
By the late classical period, she is actively engaged in a futile
struggle against the merciless attack of Perseus.
Her vulnerable state, which is effectively conveyed through her
sensuous beauty and desperate gestures, serves to instill a sense of pathos
that is unique in these brutal scenes of her beheading.
Moreover, the divergence between her pictorial image as a harmless
woman and her mythological description as a terrifying and dangerous beast
apparently undermines the heroic act of Perseus, as the once fearsome
monster is far too beautiful in her weakened state to elicit fear.
Perhaps as a result of this underlying inconsistency, representations
of Medusa's beheading virtually disappear in vase illustrations by the end
of the fourth century B.C.
In contrast to her full-figure image, the gorgoneion reveals
lingering transitional features throughout the fifth century B.C.
These features continue to distort the increasingly human appearance
of the head until the fourth century B.C., when it is usually attractively
depicted. This slower evolution
for the gorgoneia compared to Medusa's full-figure representations might
relate to its presentation as an apotropaic device to ward off evil.
Indeed, in archaic art, the ugliness of the gorgoneion functions as a
deterrent to evil, extending its reach to those individuals who might
profane the sanctity of a cult or the temple itself.
When Perseus uses the gorgoneion to petrify Polydektes, to frighten
satyrs and to defeat Dionysos, the head functions as an apotropaic emblem to
triumph over evil in the general sense, in addition to its role within the
more specific narrative. In
this context, it is understandable why the head retains vestiges of its
monstrous past longer than the full-figure image of Medusa, sometimes
extending into the fourth century B.C. when the lovely face is occasionally
marred by a protruding tongue and/or snakes.
In summary, the three stages of Medusa's evolution are vividly
represented on vases and other objects from the archaic and classical
periods. Whereas her first
transformation from a hideous beast into a more human-looking creature
apparently occurs by the early classical period, her final evolution into a
beauty is not simultaneous for her full-figure representations and the
gorgoneia. While Medusa appears
as a lovely maiden already about the mid-fifth century B.C. (pl. 10),
attractive portrayals of her decapitated head appear with regularity only in
the fourth century B.C. By the
close of that century, full-figure representations of Medusa have virtually
disappeared, but the gorgoneion remains a popular image well into the