Greek culture was at the cutting edge of sport and science when the Olympics began in the 8th century BC, and the modern Olympics remain a pinnacle for the mutually beneficial union of sport and science.
The Greek understanding of aerodynamics was used, for example, to modify the military javelin for Olympics use. Since the goal was distance instead of killing efficiency, the spear was lengthened and made from lighter wood. As well, a cord wrapped around the shaft let the thrower impart a spin, also adding distance.
Today that notoriously difficult discipline of fluid dynamics underlies the Speedo LZR Racer worn by most swimming record-breakers.
Yet what's really behind the U.S. domination of the pools are new swim strokes for Michael Phelps and his teammates, devised after secret, state-of-the-art analysis of how water flowed around each American swimmer's body as it cleaved the water.
Although swim coaches have used simulations and computer modelling for training, the Beijing Olympics marks the debut of a technology that identifies crucial vortices, gauges the movement of the water, and computes how much energy the swimmer exerts. (You can view three related videos online here: tinyurl.com/6o2jb8.)
"To see how a swimmer's motion affects the flow, you have to know how much force the swimmer is producing and how that force impacts the water," says aeronautical engineer Timothy Wei at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, N.Y.
Tests with U.S. swimmers took place last October. Customized changes in swimming techniques were made over the following months and have shaved whole seconds off lap times.
Such modern preparations may appear rigorous but to qualify for the ancient Olympics, athletes had to devote themselves to a minimum of 10 months training, carried out with a decidedly scientific bent.
Spelled out in ancient manuals such as Philostratus's Handbook for a Sports Coach, the regimes were based on observation and experimentation. For instance, the laws of mechanics – especially leverage and force – underpinned the holds taught to would-be wrestlers.
In addition, legs, arms and abdomen all had their separate exercises, which were tailored further to address the aspects of strength, speed and muscle that needed attention from individual athletes.
Despite their sophistication in many areas of science, the Greeks were constrained by their superficial ideas of human physiology centring on the four "humours," which had to be in balance for a healthy body.
Attributing everything to black bile, yellow bile, phlegm and blood is far removed from modern discoveries such as the "speed gene" ACTN3. Recent studies suggest this gene can be crucial for sprint athletes but not desirable for endurance runners.
ACTN3 normally triggers the production of a protein that drives fast-twitch muscles. In the body, these muscles use glucose to create fuel, and excel at producing bursts of strength or speed, yet tire quickly.
Australian researchers found that one in five people worldwide have an ACTN3 variant that doesn't produce any of the protein needed by fast-twitch muscles.
Genetic testing for the ACTN3 has been suggested as one way that countries could separate would-be athletes into "fast" or "endurance" streams. Experts caution that a large number of different genes almost certainly comprise the so-called phenotype of an elite athlete, and a single genetic test wouldn't predict much.
One thing seems clear: Early Greek athletes reacted to victory and defeat much as today's competitors do. A psychology professor at the University of British Columbia, Jessica Tracy, contends in a new study that the proud stance of a medalist and the slumped-shoulder dejection of a non-finalist are probably innate, biological reactions, rather than learned behaviour.
Tracy and American co-author David Matsumoto reached their conclusion after reviewing the body language in photographs of judo competitors from 30 countries at the 2004 Olympic and Paralympic Games. They compared the head, arm and body positions immediately after the match of athletes who were congenitally blind, blind after childhood, and sighted.
The winning athletes from all cultures, whether sighted or blind, tended to raise their hands, puff out their chests and tilt up their heads. Slumped shoulders and a concave chest were common among losers.
"Since congenitally blind individuals could not have learned pride and shame behaviours from watching others, these displays of victory or defeat are likely to be an innate biological propensity in humans," the researchers wrote.
Statues of Greek athletes and paintings on pottery remains reveal similar reactions to victory. The shame of defeat isn't represented.
These two sites offer a comprehensive yet painless introduction to the ancient Olympics. Included are virtual tours of the Games site, profiles of competitors, and details of the nine events those first competitors could have entered.
Contact Peter Calamai at: firstname.lastname@example.org