Alpenglow Ski Mountaineering History Project Home
Mountaineers Ski Committee - Ski Mountaineering
This is the handbook of Mountaineers ski mountaineering course, updated for the second year of the course in 1942-43. Members of the committee that organized the course are: Fred Beckey, Elov Bodin, Lyman Boyer, Doris Brightbill, Joe Buswell, Harry Cameron, Ann Cederquist, Bill Degenhardt, Jack Hossack, Mary Hossack, Ella Knutson, Dave Lind, Ken Prestrud, Jean Rathburn, Helen Rudy, Roland Sherman, Roy Snider, Burpee Stevens, Jim Wasson, Art Winder.
For reference, here are the members of the committee that developed the initial course in 1941-42. This list is from the 1941 handbook: Fred Ball, Lyman Boyer, Joe Buswell, Tom Campbell, Harry Cameron, Ann Cederquist, Mary Kelly, Walt Little (ski committee chairman), Ted Murray, Jud Nelson, Stan Newell, Stan Savage, Roland Sherman, Burpee Stevens, Walt Varney, Jim Wasson, Art Winder.
Chapters in the 1942-43 handbook:
I'm especially interested in the glacier skiing techniques prescribed by this course, so I've transcribed part of that chapter, beginning on p. 63:
- History and elementary principles
- Ski technique for ski mountaineering
- Touring and waxing
- Route finding and party management
- Glacier skiing
Reasons For Glacier Skiing
- Glaciers present opportunities for skiing later in the season than would otherwise be the case.
- Glaciers must sometimes be crossed enroute to the desired terminus.
- Frequently glaciers present best approaches to the summits of peaks.
- Glacier skiing highly enjoyable to some, requiring more varied, skillful skiing, and avoidance of obstacles.
- A ski-mountaineer should be able to safely ski on glaciers in case of an emergency.
Characteristics Of Glaciers
Glacier is formed of ice in various stages of transformation from snow to ice. Glaciers form at high elevations from large snowfall and low temperatures, slowly move downward by the pressure of their weight and melt away at lower end. At about 8,000 feet in early spring, cross section of glacier from top to bottom shows: new snow, old snow, solid neve from previous year, grainy ice, solid ice. Higher up there will be relatively more snow and neve; lower down there will be relatively more ice.
Downward movement of ice over and around irregularities in its bed causes crevasses; cracks don't usually form in ice fields where there is no movement. The junction of 2 glaciers is generally well-crevassed.
Types and locations of Typical Crevasses:
- Bergschrund forms at the top of glacier where moving ice pulls away from ice and snow attached to the rock walls of the glacier cirque; usually large and deep.
- Marginal crevasses are formed at edge of glacier because ice in center moves faster than ice on sides. Normally these are not large and run diagonally upstream from edge of glacier. Crevasses form at right angles to glacier movement.
- Longitudinal crevasses run up and down glacier; usually found on top of longitudinal ridges in the glacier; infrequent occurrence.
- Transverse crevasses run crossways of glacier; usually found on top of humps or ridges of glacier; frequent occurrence and sometimes very large; probably the most dangerous type.
- Seracs are ice pinnacles formed by intersection of lateral and longitudinal crevasses. Usually found in ice falls.
- When glacier passes over a steep drop in its bed, an ice fall is formed with all types of crevasses.
- When glacier goes around a curve in its bed, numerous crevasses of many kinds may be expected.
- Ice wells and ice caves sometimes found at lower terminus, caused by melting.
Remember that the glacier doesn't know that there are any rules about crevasses and will crack wherever a mechanical stretching action occurs. Safest rule: expect any kind of a crevasse anywhere; use close observation to select your path. Crevasses are bridged with snow during the winter, because of wind action forming cornices on the crevasse edges. Bridge is weak at first when snow is powdery, stronger after it becomes thicker, and stronger still after much thawing and freezing in the spring have converted the powder snow to crust, then progressively weaker toward the summer as it becomes thinner and finally collapses from thawing. Slope of a glacier may be as much as 45 degrees above the bergschrund and over ice falls; may be as flat as 1 degree. Skiing not practical when slopes exceed 35 degrees.
Moraines are accumulations of rock debris on the edges (lateral moraines and terminal moraine) and possibly the center of the glacier (medial moraine). Crevasses are nearly as frequent on medial moraines as on glacier. Lateral moraines are safer.
Sources Of Danger To Skiers On A Glacier
- Fall into a concealed crevasse (relatively frequent occurrence).
- Fall into a crevasse whose presence is known by reason of the collapse of weak snow bridge (relatively rare occurrence).
- Fall into crevasse because of snow collapsing when skier stands too close to edge (rare).
- Uncontrolled slide down steep slope into crevasse.
- Caught in avalanche from steep slopes above, or one started by yourself.
- Caught by fall of serac (very rare).
- Caught by bad weather—get lost and freeze.
Frequency Of Fatal Accidents To Glacier Skiers
Arnold Lunn states the following figures for twenty-five years of Glacier Skiing in the Alps:
Total killed by falls in crevasses = 9; on the ascent, unroped = 4; on the ascent, roped = 2; on the descent, unroped = 2; cause unstated = 1.
Apparent that had rope been properly used, crevasse accidents would have been limited to 3 at the most, out of probably several thousand glacier skiers.
Methods Of Avoiding Dangers On A Glacier
- Avalanches must be avoided by means discussed elsewhere.
- Fall of seracs is uncertain and infrequent; beware in hot weather, and watch for poor foundations, or tottery condition.
- Concealed crevasses can frequently be recognized by slight depressions of the snow over the crevasss, by slight discolorations, or inferred extensions of visible crevasses under the snow. Test for concealed crevasses by plumbing with ice axe or reversed ski pole; detour around them, unless you are anxious to make the "falling body" test for the strength of snow bridges.
- Falls into crevasses, visible or concealed must be limited to short, harmless drops by proper use of rope.
- Uncontrolled slides down steep slopes can be limited by use of rope and belay from partner, ice axe or ski-tail anchors, and arrest of slide by use of ice axe pick.
- Never bunch the party.
- Never allow more than one on a snow bridge at a time.
- Don't attempt to ski on ice—use crampons.
- If weather turns foggy take compass bearings and mark route.
- Turn back if weather gets worse. Avoid being caught on glacier in storm.
How To Tie On The Rope
- Use 7/16" or 1/2" Manila Climbing Rope.
- For downhill skiing, skiers spaced 60' to 100' apart. Only two on rope.
- For uphill skiing, skiers spaced 40' to 100' apart.
- Tie single loop around waist with bowline, or double loop around waist with bowline-on-bight. One loop over shoulder not recommended. Waist loop as loose as possible, but must not slip over hips or shoulders.
- Tie half hitch or two for safety in front of the bowline.
- Using Prusik knots, tie two rope slings to the rope in front of waist loop knot; for use in crevasse rescue, anchors, and belays. Pass the loose ends of slings down through your waist loop, tie loosely around waist or stick them through belt, or in pocket. Keep one sling in hip pocket (extra).
Fundamentals Of Roped Glacier Skiing
- Always keep the slack out of the rope in order:
- To limit possible falls to 3 or 4 feet.
- To prevent "Falling Body" from gaining speed, causing severe jerk on rope which may break rope or the victim's ribs.
- To aid in preventing rope entanglement with ski tips.
- Do not carry a coil of the climbing rope in your hand.
- Party must travel so that there is no danger that two members may fall in same crevasse; this means that rope should be at right angles to line of crevasses.
- Do not use an old, worn rope.
- Always expect a break through—then you won't be surprised.
- Remember, when you put on the rope, it's for safety. Don't nullify the safety angle by skiing at high speed.
- Go slow—if the leader of your rope falls in, you will have a better chance to stop the rope.
- Always ski in control.
Roped Skiing - Uphill - Easy TerrainWalk uphill as in ordinary skiing, all following leader's pace. Only difficulty comes in turns. Skiers following in same track will cause slack in rope after the first man kick turns and starts new traverse. To prevent this, all skiers stop together at same time, and kick turn in order, top man first, then each starts out on new track. In certain cases this is impossible and special attention must be given to avoid slack in rope. Two on rope is easiest, and safe enough in easy terrain.
Roped Skiing - Downhill - Easy Terrain
- Two on the rope is the most practical, three on rope is safer.
- Man in front should be the poorest skier of the party, last man the best.
- The last man on the rope is the leader, and gives orders when to turn, stop, slow down, etc.
- The party proceeds slowly, under complete control, all turning at once, where possible. If skiers do not turn at same time, slack will form in rope with resultant jerking.
- Some jerking on the rope is inevitable, and frequently leads to bad tempers—be careful of yours.
- After a jerk, the first man should speed up a trifle, last man slow down a trifle, otherwise slack will form in the rope again, leading to another jerk. The rope may be parallel to the fall line, be horizontal or diagonal, depending on the lay of the crevasses.
- First man skis normally, pole in each hand, follows leader's instructions as to pace, route, etc.
- Second and last man put both poles in one hand, use the other to flip rope away from ski tips.
- Party moves much more slowly than on practice hill of same slope—for safety's sake.
Roped Skiing On Dangerous Terrain - Both Uphill And Downhill
- Should be three on rope for safety, or better yet, 2 ropes of 2 staying close together.
- All skiers ski with ice axe in one hand, one or both ski poles in the other. Some prefer to put ski poles in pack, use axe only.
- Only one man moves at a time, slowly and steadily, ready at all times to arrest a slip with his ice axe. First man across a slope should make a good track.
- Other members on rope anchor themselves, one or two giving a belay to the moving man.
- Several types of anchors and belays, as follows:
- Fasten sling or rope loop to ice axe, thrust axe in snow up to head, give shoulder belay to moving partner.
- Sit on slope, thrust tails of skis in snow up to foot, give hip belay to partner. Rope to partner passes between skis.
- Sit astride lower lip of crevasse or ice ridge, give hip belay to partner.
- Belay rope around serac or ice pinnacle.
- Belay rope around ice axe thrust in snow, with knee helping keep axe down. Not recommended if snow is powdery or soft.
- When giving a belay, brace yourself against the direction from which the strain will come.
- Don't rely on ice axe anchor or ski tail anchor unless snow is firm.
- If there are only "x" feet between the belay and the danger spot, the moving skier must not advance more than "x" feet from his belay, then anchor and bring his partner forward.
Special Problems In Roped Skiing
- Going downhill cross narrow bridge thus: No. 1 anchors and gives a strong belay to No. 2, who approaches in line of bridge with strong stem; when he gets to bridge, pulls skis together, runs bridge straight without braking, makes controlled fall or quick stop turn on lower side. On gentle slopes no belay needed, both skiers keeping on the move. Once across, best belay No. 1 can give to No. 2 is to proceed downslope, keeping slack out of rope, while No. 2 runs bridge. Going uphill cross bridge thus: No. 1 crosses bridge with sidestep or herringbone, being careful not to stamp skis hard for fear of breaking bridge, while No. 2 remains on lower side, giving strong belay. Once across No. 1 anchors, gives belay while No. 2 crosses, or proceeds slowly upslope if terrain easy, keeping taut rope on No. 2.
- Narrow bridge over one crevasses with open crevasse just downslope and parallel to first. Going downhill proceed as in (1), except that No. 1 stops at lower end of bridge (across crevasse), anchors and belays partner across. Going uphill, proceed exactly as in (1).
- Zig-zag path through interfingering ends of crevasses—going downhill danger lies in fact that skiers can't turn together. Resultant slacking and jerking of rope handled badly may jerk skiers into crevasse. Party reduces speed, gives careful attention to rope so that under no conditions will the rope tend to pull No. 2 into one of the crevasses. Last man should travel as close to the lower lips of crevasses as possible. If conditions are bad enough, skiers move one at a time with belays. Going uphill, skiers carefully keep slack out of rope, using anchors and belays when necessary.
When To Put On The Rope
Always use the rope when on a glacier, unless it is absolutely certain that no crevasses exist. Some recommend taking chances on unroped skiing in order to get more fun. Changes of breaking through in April and May are slim, but only an expert who knows what he is doing should accept even a small risk.
==== End Transcription ====
Other subsections of the glacier skiing chapter include:
- Strength of Snow Bridges
- Crevasse Rescue
- Use of Ice Axe in Glacier Skiing
- Required Preparation for Glacier Skiing
- Additional Equipment for Glacier Skiing
- Route Finding on Glacier
- Glacier Skiing Questions
Return to the Alpenglow Ski Mountaineering History Project home page