- Survey of optical spectroscopy
- General principles
- Practical considerations
- Foundations of atomic spectra
- Molecular spectroscopy
- General principles
- Theory of molecular spectra
- Experimental methods
- Fields of molecular spectroscopy
- Microwave spectroscopy
- Infrared spectroscopy
- Raman spectroscopy
- Visible and ultraviolet spectroscopy
- Fluorescence and phosphorescence
- Photoelectron spectroscopy
- Laser spectroscopy
- X-ray and radio-frequency spectroscopy
- Resonance-ionization spectroscopy
- Ionization processes
- Atom counting
- Resonance-ionization mass spectrometry
- RIS atomization methods
- Additional applications of RIS
Perturbations of levels
The energies of atomic levels are affected by external magnetic and electric fields in which atoms may be situated. A magnetic field causes an atomic level to split into its states of different mJ, each with slightly different energy; this effect is known as the Zeeman effect (after Pieter Zeeman, a Dutch physicist). The result is that each spectral line separates into several closely spaced lines. The number and spacing of such lines depend on the J values for the levels involved; hence the Zeeman effect is often used to identify the J values of levels in complex spectra. The corresponding effect of line splitting caused by the application of a strong electric field is known as the Stark effect.
Small modifications to electronic energy levels arise because of the finite mass, nonzero volume of the atomic nucleus and the distribution of charges and currents within the nucleus. The resulting small energy changes, called hyperfine structure, are used to obtain information about the properties of nuclei and the distribution of the electron clouds near nuclei. Systematic changes in level positions are seen as the number of neutrons in a nucleus is increased. These effects are known as isotope shifts and form the basis for laser isotope separation. For light atoms, the isotope shift is primarily due to differences in the finite mass of the nucleus. For heavier atoms, the main contribution comes from the fact that the volume of the nucleus increases as the number of neutrons increases. The nucleus may behave as a small magnet because of internal circulating currents; the magnetic fields produced in this way may affect the levels slightly. If the electric field outside the nucleus differs from that which would exist if the nucleus were concentrated at a point, this difference also can affect the energy levels of the surrounding electrons (see below X-ray and radio-frequency spectroscopy: Radio-frequency spectroscopy).
A molecule is a collection of positively charged atomic nuclei surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. Its stability results from a balance among the attractive and repulsive forces of the nuclei and electrons. A molecule is characterized by the total energy resulting from these interacting forces. As is the case with atoms, the allowed energy states of a molecule are quantized (see above Basic properties of atoms).
Molecular spectra result from either the absorption or the emission of electromagnetic radiation as molecules undergo changes from one quantized energy state to another. The mechanisms involved are similar to those observed for atoms but are more complicated. The additional complexities are due to interactions of the various nuclei with each other and with the electrons, phenomena which do not exist in single atoms. In order to analyze molecular spectra it is necessary to consider simultaneously the effects of all the contributions from the different types of molecular motions and energies. However, to develop a basic understanding it is best to first consider the various factors separately.
There are two primary sets of interactions that contribute to observed molecular spectra. The first involves the internal motions of the nuclear framework of the molecule and the attractive and repulsive forces among the nuclei and electrons. The other encompasses the interactions of nuclear magnetic and electrostatic moments with the electrons and with each other.
The first set of interactions can be divided into the three categories given here in decreasing order of magnitude: electronic, vibrational, and rotational. The electrons in a molecule possess kinetic energy due to their motions and potential energy arising from their attraction by the positive nuclei and their mutual repulsion. These two energy factors, along with the potential energy due to the mutual electrostatic repulsion of the positive nuclei, constitute the electronic energy of a molecule. Molecules are not rigid structures, and the motion of the nuclei within the molecular framework gives rise to vibrational energy levels. In the gas phase, where they are widely separated relative to their size, molecules can undergo free rotation and as a result possess quantized amounts of rotational energy. In theory, the translational energy of molecules through space is also quantized, but in practice the quantum effects are so small that they are not observable, and the motion appears continuous. The interaction of electromagnetic radiation with these molecular energy levels constitutes the basis for electron spectroscopy, visible, infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopies, Raman spectroscopy, and gas-phase microwave spectroscopy.
The second set of molecular interactions form the basis for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy, and nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) spectroscopy. The first two arise, respectively, from the interaction of the magnetic moment of a nucleus or an electron with an external magnetic field. The nature of this interaction is highly dependent on the molecular environment in which the nucleus or electron is located. The latter is due to the interaction of a nuclear electric quadrupole moment with the electric field generated by the surrounding electrons; they will not be discussed in this article.
Molecular spectra are observed when a molecule undergoes the absorption or emission of electromagnetic radiation with a resulting increase or decrease in energy. There are limitations, imposed by the laws of quantum mechanics, as to which pairs of energy levels can participate in energy changes and as to the extent of the radiation absorbed or emitted. The first condition for the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by a molecule undergoing a transition from a lower energy state, Elo, to a higher energy state, Ehi, is that the frequency of the absorbed radiation must be related to the change in energy by Ehi − Elo = hν, where ν is radiation frequency and h is Planck’s constant. Conversely, the application of electromagnetic radiation of frequency ν to a molecule in energy state Ehi can result in the emission of additional radiation of frequency ν as the molecule undergoes a transition to state Elo. These two phenomena are referred to as induced absorption and induced emission, respectively. Also a molecule in an excited (high) energy state can spontaneously emit electromagnetic radiation, returning to some lower energy level without the presence of inducing radiation.