Advance to Florence
Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, commanding Army Group C (in essence, all German ground forces in Italy) noted after the war that the Allied advance from Rome had been very slow, and that tank divisions pushed out on roads west of the Tiber immediately after the fall of Rome would have put his forces in "irreparable jeopardy." As it was, the 19 divisions that had fought at Rome were in a state of disorganization, having suffered over 38,000 dead, wounded and missing by 2 June. Some divisions, including 94th and 362nd Infantry Divisions, were down to as little as 10% of their established strength. The 1st Parachute, 44th Infantry and 90th Panzergrenadier Divisions mustered 15% while 26th Panzer and 29th Panzergrenadier Divisions were at 20% of establishment. None were over 50% and on 10 June no divisions of the 14th and 76th Panzer corps were capable of fielding more than 2,500 men. The once-vaunted Hermann Göring Parachute Panzer Division numbered just 811 while the 1st Parachute Division had 902 soldiers of all ranks. Major deficiencies in guns and tanks accompanied the casualty toll.2
On 1 July 1944 The Hermann Göring Division submitted a report on its personnel, including vehicle status. It was authorized 31 assault guns and held 0, authorized 102 PzKpfw IV and V medium tanks, and had 12 operational. Of 341 authorized armoured cars and half-tracked APCs, it could operate 118, and of 28 authorized self-propelled anti-tank guns, none were operational. Personnel strength was reported as 977 on 9 June and "a ruthless combing of the rear-echelon units and headquarters and the merging of various units" permitted an increase to 3,124 men again on 19 June.3
Kesselring moved to shore up the 14th Army in the west, vulnerable in open country west of the Tiber and in better terrain than the 10th Army, in the rugged Appennine mountains. He replaced the 14th Army's commander and sent three fresh divisions (the 356th Infantry, the 162nd (Turcoman) Division and the 20th Luftwaffe Field Division from Denmark. Three motorized divisions were also sent to the western flank west of the Tiber (29th Panzergrenadier, 90th Panzergrenadier and 26th Panzer) in exchange for the 76th Panzer Corps which went to the 10th Army. Three divisions in turn were sent to man fortifications in the Pisa-Rimini Line while they recuperated. Originally known as the "Apennine Position", the line became the "Gothic Line" in April 1944. On 16 June 1944 the Germans renamed it the Green Line.4
The Gothic Line was upgraded beginning in early 1944 with Panzerturm (emplaced tank turrets) and other fortifications covering key approaches. After neglecting to fortify mountain approaches on the Gustav and Hitler Lines, these too were fortified on the Gustav Line. A four mile belt of barbed wire, land mines and demolitions lay in front of the Gothic Line.6
German leaders were pessimistic about being able to halt the Allied advance south of the Gothic Line. General Walter Warlimont, Deputy Chief of the Wehrmacht Operations Staff, reported to his superior, General Alfred Jodl, on 8 June that if Allied forces couldn't be halted, a withdrawal to the Gothic Line would occur in about 21 days. Kesselring ordered a comprehensive instruction the next day for a fighting withdrawal to the Gothic positions. Hitler reviewed the order with suspicion, fearing it meant Army Group C intended to withdraw without fighting south of the Pisa-Rimini line. Further communication between Kesselring and the High Command on 10 June reinforced Hitler's doubts, as Kesselring spoke of defending Italy as far south of the Apennines as possible on the one hand, while declaring imperative the preservation of the army before reaching the Gothic Line. Hitler ordered the resumption of defensive operations rather than delaying/withdrawal operations.
By 14 June, ten days after the fall of Rome, the Allies had advanced 70 miles north. Kesselring issued his order that Army Group C would stand firm on the Albert-Frieda Line (known to the Allies as the Trasimene Line). They would build up the Gothic Line to resist an Allied breakout into the Po River plain. Kesselring took Hitler's orders to heart, reprimanding his new commander of the 14th Army for withdrawing 20 kilometres in a single day on 15 June. The Trasimene Line, extending from Grosseto to Porto Civitanova, was to be held, and Kesselring ordered "that upon reaching this line the delaying tactics will come to an end and the enemy advance and break-through must be stopped."8
Major fighting occurred again at positions known as the Dora Line, but the 13th Corps broke through on 14 June to take Orvieto while the 10th Corps approached Temi. Alexander was able to report that day to his superior, General Maitland Wilson, the Allied Supreme Commander in the Mediterranean, that Allied armies were almost halfway from Rome to Florence and Leghorn, averaging advances of seven miles a day, and promised to increase the tempo further. Grosseto and the island of Elba fell on 17 and 19 June respectively, the former to U.S. troops and the latter to a combined-arms assault from Corsica by French troops with British naval and American air support. The 13th British Corps reached Lake Trasimene (Lago Trasimeno in Italian) on 19 June and on 20 June the 10th Corps entered Perugia. While the 2nd Polish Corps was delayed by bad weather and extensive German demolitions, they were able to advance halfway between Pescara and Ancona. By 20 June the main Allied attack had reach the Albert-Frieda Line.
Where the Allied forces in Italy were losing was in the strategic discussions. Both Wilson, as Supreme Allied Commander, Mediterranean, and Alexander, the Commander-in-Chief, Allied Armies in Italy, argued with the Combined Chiefs of Staff to keep the Italian campaign the main priority for operations in the Mediterranean. There had been agreement in February 1944, and in April, Operation ANVIL, a planned invasion of southern France, had been cancelled so as not to conflict with the major offensive in Italy. However, in May Alexander was warned by Wilson that amphibious operations would recommence no later than mid-September, either closely tied to operations in Italy, or outside the theatre altogether, requiring the release of four French and three American divisions. Alexander replied that after cracking the Gothic Line his choices would be to halt in order to free up resources for use elsewhere, or to use all the forces he had to carry on into the Po Valley and strike further into either France or Austria.
On 14 June the Combined Chiefs of Staff notified Wilson to withdraw the 6th U.S. Corps and the divisions earmarked for the U.S. 7th Army. Wilson urged strongly that an alternative proposed by the Chiefs be adopted - an advance across the Po Valley into Austria with an amphibious landing at Trieste. The American Chief of Staff, General Marshall, and the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force in western France, General Eisenhower, both felt Marseilles in southern France a superior target, through which 40 or 50 additional American divisions might pass into France. Operation DRAGOON was thus set for 15 August 1944, to take priority over the Italian campaign with an initial build-up of 10 divisions on French soil. Alexander was still tasked with destroying German forces in Italy, with the immediate objective of advancing over the Apennines to the line of the Po and if the situation allowed to cross the river to a line Padua-Verona-Brescia. The Combined Chiefs were hopeful that DRAGOON and offensive action in Italy would precipitate a withdrawal from north-west Italy and render further offensive operations unnecessary. Alexander thought any major penetration into the Po valley unlikely before winter, and on 12 July ordered the bombing of the 23 extant rail and road bridges spanning the river. In 72 hours, they were destroyed. Allied airpower prevented the Germans from rebuilding them; on 30 August the German 10th Army's chief engineer reported that all the bridges were still destroyed.11
Canadian Armour at the Trasimene Line, 21-28 June
The main Canadian forces in Italy had been sent to rest and refit following the Liri Valley battles on 6 June 1944. The exception was the independent 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade, whose three armoured regiments supported British formations in the fighting between Rome and Florence.13 The 12th Canadian Armoured Regiment (The Three Rivers Regiment) was operating in support of the lead brigade of the 8th Indian Division from 4 June, and for five days they advanced through the Simbruini mountains. The tanks had little to do in this phase, and were often far behind the infantry due to the skillful German demolitions and mines on the narrow mountain roads.
There was much more to do at the Trasimene Line. Arriving on scene in the third week of June, delayed by bad weather and enemy demolitions, the 13th Corps knew from captured documents that the Germans intended to hold south of the Gothic Line and fight a delaying action. The 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade was called out of corps reserve along with the British 4th Division and went into action left of the 78th Division, where the line extended west from Lake Trasimene. Shermans of the Ontario Regiment knocked out five tanks in four days of fighting, including three PzKpfw V "Panthers" and received a personal congratulations from the 8th Army commander.14
The Three Rivers Regiment likewise went into action with the 4th Division, who had little experience in operating with tanks. The remnants of the German 1st Parachute Division fought tenaciously in ground suited to the defence and by 1 July, the regiment had lost more men and tanks (94 all ranks and 26 vehicles) than it had during the Gustav Line and Hitler Line battles of May 1944.15 The Regment fought a particularly noteworthy action on 28 June at Casamaggiore when "C" Squadron boldly seized high ground in the toughest part of the German line and repelled counter-attacks by Panthers and infantry for seven hours.16
The 8th Army revised its plan for the drive on Arezzo and Florence and the 14th Canadian Armoured Regiment (The Calgary Regiment) entered the battle in support of the 12th Brigade, as British battalions attempted to fight into the strongest part of the German defensive line north of Perugia. The attack was notable for the poor coordination with the Three Rivers Regiment which prevented the attack from being pressed or properly supported by artillery.17
At the strategic level, the Allies seemed to be breaking through all along the front. The 4th U.S. Corps was steadily advancing up the coast on the extreme western end of the Allied line in the 5th Army sector. The Corps Expeditionnaire Francais (French Expeditonary Corps) to their right had held a 29-mile front on the Orcia River between 22 and 26 June and thereafter broke through tough resistance by the 4th Fallschirmjäger and 356th Infantry Divisions. With no reserves to spare, Kesselring was forced to order a general withdrawal on the evening of 26 June. On 28-29 June, German units broke contact on the front of the 13th Corps and pulled back three to four miles.
The Advance to the Arezzo Line, 29 June - 16 July
The next fall back position for the Germans was the Arezzo Line, blocking the final approach to Florence. The Calgary Regiment took up the pursuit, and German rear-guards, opposed river crossings, demolitions and mined roads all slowed the pace of the advance. All progress stopped on 6 and 7 July as the Calgaries drew up to the line of German defences and supported two British battalions in assaults on hills overlooking San Pancrazio. Challenging terrain, sniper and mortar fire all exhausted the infantry, who suffered heavily. A week of stalemate was broken by a renewed attack by 6th South African Armoured Division an 2nd New Zealand Division on 15 and 16 July. The new attacks, as well as progress by the 5th Army to the west, convinced the Germans to pull out of the Arezzo Line and back to Florence.19
The Pursuit to the Arno, 16 July - 5 August
Kesselring's delaying action on the Arezzo had bought ten extra days for completing the Gothic Line defences. However, in Florence the 8th Army would also gain a valuable administrative base from which to launch its attack. There would be three more weeks of fighting to secure the city. The 13th Corps began their advance with three divisions; the British 6th Armoured attacked northwest down the valley of the Arno, the 6th South African Armoured Division advanced north on the left flank of the corps, and the 4th Division used Highway 69 as its main axis, keeping contact with both armoured divisions. The 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade supported the brigades of the 4th Division but saw no serious combat as they advanced. The enemy pulled back from the heights at San Pancrazio-Civitella on the left of the divisional front, and on the right, only mines and blown bridges on the Arezzo-Florence highway, and some scattered shells and mortar bombs, deterred the advance. On 17 July the Three Rivers were welcomed warmly by Pergrine, and the infantry they supported in the 10th Brigade cleared La Querce by evening. The Calgary Regiment's recce troop entered Capannole unopposed on 16 July and infantry of the 28th Brigade followed up the next day. On the 18th Montevarchi was cleared of snipers by the Three Rivers and infantry of the 10th Brigade.
German resistance increased. The Panzer Grenadier Regiment Hermann Göring 2, the last component of the division to fight in Italy (the remainder had transferred to the Eastern Front at the end of July), took up positions west of Montevarchi. Tasked with delaying the Allied advance as preparation of the Gothic Line continued, the series of positions overlooking Highway 69 was known as the Irmgard Line, and alternatively as the Fritz Line. The Ontario Regiment supported an attack by the 2nd Battalion, The Somerset Light Infantry on 18 July, attacking from the direction of Ricasoli. On 19 July, the 10th Brigade attacked from the Montevarchi with the Three Rivers in support, and two Canadian tanks were knocked out. The Germans were convinced to pull out of Ricasoli by heavy fire from self-propelled guns accompanying both attacking British brigades. Early on 20 July the Three Rivers Regiment put "A" Squadon into Ricasoli while the East Surreys moved up left of Highway 69.22
To the north of Ricasoli, a party of the Hermann Görings were cut off and surprised on a ridge. An officer among the 38 captured Germans reportedly couldn't believe that Sherman tanks were able to maneuver to their position, a testament to the work of the Canadian engineers. The first contact between German and Canadian forces in the Italian campaign had come between Three Rivers tanks and the Hermann Göring Division on Sicily in July 1943 at Grammichele. This encounter with the Three Rivers was to be the last time the Hermann Görings met Canadians in battle. Also at an end was the association between the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade and the 4th British Division. Together, the two formations had advanced 35 miles from Trasimene to the Arno. The Canadians suffered 26 killed and 102 wounded. On 20 July their relief by the 25th British Tank Brigade began, as the 13th Corps began to regroup.
The French Expeditionary Corps departed for the invasion of southern France and the 13th Corps extended its front. The advance of the corps in the Arno Valley had stopped, particularly on the front of the 6th Armoured Division, east of Highway 69 where two and a half German divisions barred the way. The left flank, a ten mile frontage between Highway 2 and the Chianti Hills, was held by just two German divisions and so the corps attack shifted there. The 8th Indian Division transferred from 10th Corps, tasked to follow up the main attack by the 6th South African Armoured and 2nd New Zealand Divisions. on 22 July, the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade came under control of the 8th Indian Division, renewing a relationship that had been forged on the Adriatic and strengthened during fighting for the Gustav Line.
The Calgary Regiment went into action first, supporting the 21st Brigade on 23 July, and for four days as they attacked with the 19th Brigade down Highway 2 and a secondary road near Empoli. The 29th Panzergrenadier Division offered only light opposition, mines, demolitions and scattered long-range shelling, and they embarked on a general withdrawal. "A" and "B" Squadron of the Calgary Regiment continued on in support of the 19th Brigade through the towns of Certaldo and Castelfiorentino while "C" Squadron supported a unit of 21st Brigade to Tavarnelle on Highway 2. It was a leisurely advance, the division ordered not to apply strong pressure on the Germans. Resistance stiffened as the tank and infantry forces approached the Olga positions on 26 July, a 10-mile line through Montespertoli 13 miles north of Poggibonsi, held by the German 4th Parachute Division. The paratroopers were supported by self-propelled guns, medium artillery and Tiger tanks. "C" Squadron of the Calgary Regiment, in support of the 21st Brigade, lost two tanks and six casualties as they bumped into the positions. On the night of 26-27 July the Three Rivers relieved them, and the next day found the Germans had again broken contact, not planning to fight a major engagement in their Olga positions. They retreated in haste, with little time for mining or demolitions, and the Canadian tanks and Indian infantry made half a dozen miles on good roads, reaching Montelupo where the Pesa and Arno Rivers met. The advance was so rapid, they outpaced their artillery and required air support by Spitfires to do counter-battery work on German guns that shelled them. Patrols found rearguards of the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division holding Empoli and Montelupo.
The final holding positions south of Florence were the Paula Line, following the line of the River Pesa from the Arno at Montelupo for a distance of seven miles, then across Highway 2 and east towards the 10th Army boundary, four miles west of Highway 69. It was here that the 13th Corps advance came to a halt on 29 July, as five German divisions (west to east, they were 3rd Panzergrenader, 29th Panzergrenadier, 4th Parachute, 356th Infantry, and 715th Infantry) held the main front between the Elsa and the Middle Arno.
The Three Rivers Regiment and the Calgary Regiment continued firing in support of the infantry, though they remained south of the Arno to defend against possible German counter-attacks. They had reached the furthest limit of their advance on Florence. After a few days they concentrated with 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade headquarters 12 miles south of the city. The Ontario Regiment had briefly joined the pair on 3 August, supporting the 17th Indian Brigade, then less than two days later they moved off again, and came under command of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division, returning to the battle area after a stretch in reserve in the upper Volturno Valley with the rest of I Canadian Corps.25
The 1st Canadian Division spent a brief period at Florence (see below) and when they left on 8 August the Ontario Regiment came under command of the 8th Indian Division. The Calgary Regiment stayed in reserve for two weeks, the Three Rivers until October. The Ontarios stayed south of the Arno for seven days, shelling enemy-held roads north-west of Florence and supporting infantry as they dealt with enemy patrols on the near side of the river. the Germans withdrew their rearmost elements from the northern suburbs and the 8th Indian and 1st British Divisions crossed the river to begin providing assistance to the civilians in Florence. On 14 August the divisions exchanged sectors, moving British troops into the city and the Indians ("more appropriately") into the mountains to the east, leaving the Ontario Regiment's tanks in support of the 1st Division. A troop of "A" Squadron became the first tanks into the city on 17 August, the remainder of the squadron following the next day. They were forbidden from firing their 75-mm main armament in the central part of the city but the tanks were used for reconnaissance, assisting British troops and Partisans in mopping up German machine guns and snipers, and as a counter-attack force in the event of a German attack.27
1st Canadian Division at Florence
On 18 July 1944 the 8th Army directed 1st Canadian Corps to begin concentrating in secret near Perugia, in anticipation that they would continue offensive operations by the Army and break through the Gothic Line. The Canadian Corps' role in the attack was to take over the eastern flank of the 10th Corps in the Central Appenines, permitting the 10th and 13th Corps to concentrate for the main assault. In the meantime, the 1st Canadian Division was to reinforce the 13th Corps at Florence. Following a Royal Visit on 31 July 1944, the 1st Division began moving from the Volturno Valley, followed by the remainder of the Corps. Elaborate deception schemes and rigorous security was enforced to hide the move. Unit flashes (as well as the distinctive ribbon of the Canadian Volunteer Service Medal) were stripped from uniforms and identification symbols were removed from vehicles while enemy intelligence was provided false information in hopes of convincing them they Corps was concentrating behind the 2nd Polish Corps.
The 2nd Canadian Brigade entered a front that had become static, taking over the sector of the 2nd New Zealand Division on the evening of 5 August 1944. The 1st Brigade moved into the sector of the 6th South Africa Armoured Division on their right the next night. The moves permitted the 8th Indian Division to move back into corps reserve, and left the Canadians facing the Arno river on a 10-mile wide front. The 1st Brigade's sector included that portion of Florence lying south of the river. Three battalions of the German 4th Parachute Division still held onto the 90% of the city lying on the opposite bank. All bridges over the Arno had been blown by German engineers, save the 14th-Century Ponte Vecchio, which instead had been blocked by the destruction of a series of buildings on the approaches.
The Division only remained in place until 8 August, when they were relieved by the 8th Indian Division. They moved once again under tight security to the south, rejoining 1st Canadian Corps on 10 August near Peruglia-Foligno.31
In the last half of August, the Germans gave no evidence they would give up their positions on the heights overlooking Florence. To the east, on the front held by the British 1st Division and 8th Indian Division, they began to withdraw on 20 August, pulling back 5 miles to more easily defended positions on the far bank of the Arno River. The 13th Corps pursued, to maintain contact and prepare for a broad crossing of the river as part of an upcoming offensive by the U.S. 5th Army, under whose operational command they came on 18 August.
The Calgary Regiment went into action on 25 August supporting the Indian Division in a crossing of the Arno, wading the river on 25 August and then shooting Gurkha troops onto Mount Cerrone on 29 August. The Gurkhas drove 200 Germans off in hand-to-hand combat, with heavy fire and a counter-attack preventing them from exploiting their success. By the 31st, however, 8th Army actions on the Adriatic coast convinced the Germans that further delaying actions on the Arno were fruitless, and their last rearguards on the Arno were withdrawn.
The following Canadian units were awarded the Battle Honour "Advance to Florence" for participation in these actions:
1st Canadian Armoured Brigade