Inner Mongolia, in full Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, official Chinese Nei Mongol Zizhiqu, Pinyin Nei Menggu Zizhiqu, Wade-Giles romanization Nei-meng-ku Tzu-chih-ch’ü, autonomous region of China. It is a vast territory that stretches in a great crescent for some 1,490 miles (2,400 km) across northern China. It is bordered to the north by Mongolia (formerly Outer Mongolia) and Russia; to the east by the Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning; to the south by the provinces of Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi and the Hui Autonomous Region of Ningxia; and to the west by the province of Gansu. Its capital is Hohhot (Huhehaote). Area 454,600 square miles (1,177,500 square km). Pop. (2010) 24,706,321.
Relief and drainage
Inner Mongolia is essentially an inland plateau with a flat surface lying at an elevation of about 3,300 feet (1,000 metres) above sea level and fringed by mountains and valleys. Its southern boundary is formed by a series of high ridges with an average height of between 4,500 and 6,000 feet (1,400 to 1,800 metres). To the northwest the land falls away toward the centre of the Gobi (desert), an arid zone with low summer rainfall, strong evaporation, almost perpetual sunshine, and constant northwesterly winds. The Huang He (Yellow River) makes a great northward and southward loop through south-central Inner Mongolia, delineating the arid Ordos Plateau and providing irrigation water for the area. In the centre and the north, rainfall and snow are absorbed by the desert.
The eastern third of the region is dominated by the Da Hinggan (Greater Khingan) Range, which rises from the plateau to elevations of 4,000 feet (1,200 metres) and more. Glaciation has cut many U-shaped valleys in the mountains, through which run tributaries to the Argun (Ergun) River. The Argun forms most of Inner Mongolia’s border with Russia and is a major tributary of the Amur River (Heilong Jiang), the latter formed by the confluence of the Argun and Shilka rivers just west of Heilongjiang province.
Soils in the western areas are largely gray-brown or sandy desert. In the central regions, chestnut-brown soils are common, in which cereals can be raised by dry farming once every two or three years after sufficient moisture has accumulated in the soil. Soils in the higher elevations of the eastern mountains are podzolic (leached), while rich black soils and dark brown soils are found on the lower western and eastern slopes, respectively. The prairie on both sides of the great bend of the Huang He is known as the “granary of the frontier.”
The seasons are marked by sharp fluctuations in the climate. Spring arrives in May and lasts for two months. Summer temperatures are relatively uniform. The July average is about 72 °F (22 °C) at Hohhot in the west-central part of the region; the yearly variation, however, is about 63 °F (35 °C). The two hottest months are July and August, when almost three-fifths of the annual precipitation occurs. Winter, which arrives after mid-September and lasts until March, is bitterly cold, with strong, icy winds blowing out of Siberia. Precipitation is meagre. In the Gobi areas the yearly total is less than 2 inches (50 mm), the plateau area receives only about 12 inches (300 mm), while about 20 inches (500 mm) fall in the eastern mountains. The development of farming is handicapped by a frost-free period that lasts only from 60 to 160 days and by droughts, which occur almost annually.
Plant and animal life
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Much of the western territory is barren, characterized by shifting sands and sparse vegetation. Some drought-resistant grasses and shrubs grow in areas of higher precipitation, and the central government has pursued a program of planting millions of trees on the southern and eastern edges of the arid region. Virgin forests cover a vast area of the Da Hinggan Range, consisting primarily of coniferous species (e.g., pine and larch) in the north and more broad-leaved varieties (birch and aspen) toward the south. The mountains support a variety of wildlife, including deer and elk and marten, hare, and other fur-bearing animals.
In contrast to Inner Mongolia’s western and eastern portions, large areas of the central region consist of rich grassland, which provides pasture for sheep, goats, cattle, and the famous Mongolian horses and Bactrian camels. Sheep and goats (roughly in equal proportions) are by far the most important, the most ubiquitous, and the most numerous of the animals raised on the grasslands.
Han (Chinese) constitute the bulk of the population, and the largest minority population is that of the Mongols. Minor groups include the Hui (Chinese Muslims), Manchu, Daur (Dawo’er) Mongols, Evenk (Ewenki, or Ewenke), Koreans, and Oroqen (Elunchun) peoples. The population is unevenly distributed, with most people concentrated in the agricultural belt south of the Daqing Mountains escarpment of the Mongolian Plateau (near the Huang He) and on the eastern slopes of the Da Hinggan Range.
Because the Han greatly outnumber the Mongols, the most widely used language is Chinese. The Mongolian dialects belong to the eastern branch of Mongolian languages; they are phonetically, morphologically, and syntactically almost the same as the Khalkha Mongol dialect of Mongolia to the north. A writing system of the Mongol language, using the Cyrillic alphabet, was introduced in 1955, but the traditional Mongolian alphabet was later reintroduced.
In addition to ancestor worship, some of the Han in the region follow a religion formed of elements of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. The Mongols are mostly followers of Tibetan Buddhism, and many Mongol families have a son in a monastery. Despite the prevalence of a form of Buddhism marked by ritual and a dominant, hierarchical monasticism, some aspects of shamanism are still practiced. The stronghold of shamanism among the Mongols is the Hulun Buir league (meng). The Hui, centred on Hohhot, are adherents of Islam.
Inner Mongolia, traditionally agricultural and pastoral, has become much more urbanized since the late 1990s, especially around the three major urban areas located in the centre of the region. Baotou is a large industrial complex and transportation hub west of Hohhot; Hohhot is the region’s political and cultural centre; and Jining (since 2003 part of Ulanqab municipality) is a commercial and transportation centre east of the capital. Also important are Chifeng (Ulaan Hada) and Hailar, commercial centres and transportation hubs to the south and west, respectively, of the Da Hinggan Range. About half of Inner Mongolia’s population is now classified as urban.
Inner Mongolia, with almost one-third of China’s grassland and about one-fourth of its pasture area, has been traditionally renowned for its livestock. The condition of the livestock industry improved markedly after 1950 through the use of such measures as large-scale wolf hunting to reduce herd predation, the immunization of cattle, and improved pasturage and animal husbandry. Weather stations were established to forewarn herders of major storms. Crossbreeding by artificial insemination, such as between domestic and Tsgaisky pedigreed sheep, greatly improved stocks. Sheep are the main livestock raised, and cattle, horses, pigs, and camels are also important.
The harsh climate severely restricts intensive agriculture. In some areas, particularly around the great loop of the Huang He, oats, spring wheat, kaoliang (a variety of grain sorghum), millet, and other grains are cultivated. In irrigated areas sugar beets and oil-bearing crops such as linseed, rape, and sunflowers are important. Rice production is also important in the eastern part of the region. Measures to improve agricultural output have included greater implementation of water conservation and irrigation programs (including the use of plastic-film mulching in some drier areas) and the use of chemical fertilizers.
Resources and manufacturing
Inner Mongolia’s industry is based on the territory’s great and varied mineral wealth: some 60 different types have been found in the region. There are rich iron-ore deposits at Bayan Obo (Baiyun Ebo), about 75 miles (120 km) north of Baotou, and Inner Mongolia has one of the world’s largest deposits of rare-earth metals—some two-thirds of known reserves. Coal, mined near Baotou and at other locations, is in thick seams and easy to extract, thus providing a ready energy source for industrial development. The inland drainage of the Mongolian Plateau once contained a number of salt lakes; most have dried up, leaving behind deposits of salt and natural alkali (soda). These resources are important for the chemical industry, especially for the manufacture of chemical fertilizers. There are also significant deposits of niobium, beryllium, and gypsum.
Industrial development advanced rapidly after 1950, centred around Baotou, which developed into one of the major iron-and-steel producers in China. The city has numerous other plants, including those making ceramics, cement, machinery (including heavy trucks), textiles and leather products, chemical fertilizers, and electronic equipment. Other major industrial centres include Hohhot, Chifeng, and, to the west, Wuhai.
Also important to Inner Mongolia’s economy is the processing of nonferrous and rare-earth metals, timber, and forest and animal by-products and the fabrication of building materials. Inner Mongolia has been working to develop an industrial system with ethnic and regional features. Handicrafts like carpets, saddles, and cashmere and camel hair fabrics are sold throughout China.
The rail system links the region to the remainder of China. Major railway junctions are Baotou, Hohhot, and Jining. With the advent of industrial development, several new railways were constructed in Inner Mongolia. The Jining and Ulaanbaatar International Railway (completed in 1955) connects China with Mongolia and with Russia. This route shortened the rail distance between Beijing and Moscow by some 700 miles (1,130 km). The most important line constructed since 1949, however, is that from Baotou to Lanzhou in Gansu province, which completes the rail link between northern and northwestern China. Another major line from Jining east to Tongliao completed in the middle 1990s connects the region with northeastern provinces.
In addition to the rail network, thousands of miles of highway link most areas. An express highway connecting Baotou, Hohhot, and Jining runs all the way to Beijing, and another extends northward to Wuhai from Yinchuan in Ningxia. Inland waterway navigation is somewhat limited. Only the upper course of the Huang He, from Lanzhou to Baotou, is navigable. Hohhot is the hub of international air travel, but there are regional airports in most of the larger cities.
Government and society
The administration of Inner Mongolia somewhat differs in name and composition from that in other parts of China. The region is divided into three leagues (meng), similar to subprovincial units in China proper, and nine prefecture-level municipalities (dijishi). Below that level, the local administrative units are subdivided as banners (qi) or autonomous banners (zizhiqi) in the Mongolian and some other minority group areas and counties (xian), county-level cities (xianjishi), and districts under the municipalities (shixiaqu) in the predominantly Han area.
Health and welfare
The nomadic Mongol pastoralists still live in traditional tentlike structures called yurts, or ger, that are inadequately ventilated. In the past, this, added to chronic shortages of drinking water and traditional hygiene patterns, contributed to the spread of epidemic diseases. Syphilis and bubonic plague caused a continuous decline in the Mongolian population in the mid-19th to mid-20th century. In 1947, for example, more than three-fifths of the pastoral population suffered from syphilis, and the infant mortality rate in 1949 was as high as one in three live births. Public health has since greatly improved, and the spread of infectious diseases has been brought under control. Energetic promotion of new midwifery methods significantly reduced the rate of infant mortality, and the population began increasing.
Education was introduced after 1949, mainly through mobile schools and a “half-study, half-work” scheme in which study time varied according to the requirements of agricultural and pastoral activities. More than three-fifths of the population has received at least a primary-level education, and illiteracy has been reduced. A number of vocational schools, colleges, and universities are also in operation, including Inner Mongolia University (founded 1957) and Inner Mongolia Agricultural University (1952), both in Hohhot.
Inner Mongolia’s culture bears the deep imprint of Tibetan Buddhist influence. In liturgical music, monastery and temple architecture, scriptural learning and commentary, and religious arts, the Mongols accepted the forms of Tibet. Though the specific content and emphasis of Mongol folk legends vary somewhat with the location and with tribal or clan history concerning their origins, most clans have legends of their founders as either a mythical animal or a hero; others preserve legends about historical figures once prominent in the life of their clan. The subjects and themes of Mongol folktales and other forms of vernacular literature tend to be standard among all the tribes. A large number concern lamas and religious life. Legends and songs as well as riddles and jokes occupy the leisure time of the night camp and its fireside circle, which form a major aspect of traditional Mongolian life.
Mongolian music is not an independent art but serves solely as accompaniment to songs, dances, and rites. Singing is a form of entertainment, communication, historical recollection, group fellowship, and exuberant expression, and it demonstrates the close affiliation of individual Mongols with their culture and traditions. Mongol singing is generally a gregarious activity, mostly taking place around campfires, after the evening meal. The traditional long song (urtiin duu) style has been recognized as an “intangible cultural heritage” by UNESCO.
The Mongols observe seasonal celebrations: the New Year, the celebration of the White Month (signifying rebirth) in spring, the Midsummer Festival on the 12th day of the sixth month of the Chinese lunar calendar, the Autumn Festival (Festival of Fire) on the first day of the eighth lunar month, and the Great Sacrificial Feast to the Fire God on the 23rd day in the 12th lunar month.
Besides the temple festivals, there is the Obo (shrine) Festival, held in the fifth month of the lunar year. Toward the end of the ceremonies the festival takes a joyful course without restraint. There are wrestling and archery competitions, and a race is held in which the young men of the tribes ride their best horses. This is the time for a dashing display of the talent and vigour of the Mongol nomads.
With the increasing Sinicization of the region—in terms of both numbers and influence—many Han cultural forms have become prominent. Minority national troupes and a number of regional institutes seek to encourage and preserve the indigenous cultural traditions. Notable points of interest include the Five-Pagoda Temple (Wuta Si) in Hohhot, the “Green Tomb” of the Han-era courtesan Wang Zhaojun (1st century bce) near Hohhot, and several sites associated with the Neolithic Hongshan (“Red Hill”) culture near Chifeng.
Farming was carried out on the grasslands near the present boundary of Inner Mongolia and the provinces to the south in early times. The area was the northern limit of expansion of intensive agricultural settlement and was thus the scene of frequent confrontations between nomadic steppe dwellers and settled agriculturalists. In 658 bce several states of the North China Plain combined their efforts to build a wall defending what is now Hebei from nomadic incursions and annexed part of Inner Mongolia to their agricultural territory. This part of Mongolia was inherited by the rulers of the Qin dynasty when they unified the Zhanguo (Warring States) into an empire in the 3rd century bce.
Emperors of the succeeding Han dynasty waged war against the powerful Xiongnu, who were based in the valley of the northern bend of the Huang He. After pushing the Xiongnu north of the river, the Han settled the Ordos Plateau region. The decline of the Han dynasty in the 3rd century ce brought a series of nomadic rulers to northern China. Later the Tang dynasty (618–907) again asserted control over China’s northern border, constricting trade and prompting border raids.
The establishment of the Mongolian Empire by Chinggis (Genghis) Khan in the 13th century brought prestige and expanded trade to Inner Mongolia. Old raiding patterns returned with the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) in China, but peaceful relations with China were reestablished when the Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12) reorganized the tribes into banners and leagues and promoted trade through itinerant Han merchants.
During the 19th century, population pressure to the south brought many Chinese farmers into Mongolia in search of land to cultivate. This caused conflicts with herders that culminated in independence for Outer Mongolia in 1912 and administrative autonomy for Inner Mongolia in 1932. Eastern Inner Mongolia was occupied by the Japanese from 1933 as part of the state of Manchukuo (Manzhouguo), and Japanese rule extended westward after 1937 during the Sino-Japanese War and lasted until 1945.
The Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region was founded by the Chinese communist regime in 1947, more than two years prior to the establishment of its national government at Beijing in 1949. In its first configuration, it consisted of the former Chahar and Suiyuan provinces and sections taken from western Heilongjiang and northern Liaoning provinces. In a series of annexations in the 1950s, Inner Mongolia was greatly expanded to the northeast and east, west, and south; from 1956 to 1969 it extended in a great 1,700-mile (2,700-km) arc from east of the Da Hinggan Range, then dipped to the southwest and west to the Badan Jilin Desert in north-central China proper. During this period more than half of China’s frontier with Mongolia was the Inner Mongolian border; in addition, in the northeast, a considerable section of China’s international boundary with the Soviet Union—that along the Argun River—was in Inner Mongolia. In 1969 the Beijing government reversed its previous policy by sharply cutting down the area of the autonomous region, transferring territory to the surrounding provinces and regions in all directions (especially to the Hui Autonomous Region of Ningxia in the west and Heilongjiang in the east). Only the international frontier with Mongolia remained unchanged. The areas transferred constituted about two-thirds of the former area of the region and contained almost half of its former population. In 1979 this reorganization was terminated, and the territory detached in 1969 was restored to Inner Mongolia.
Inner Mongolia traditionally has been an area of mixture and contact between the agrarian Chinese and the pastoral and nomadic Mongolians. The continuous territorial changes that have affected it have therefore signified the contradiction of diverse cultures and conflicting loyalties. Inner Mongolia has thus served as a testing ground for Chinese efforts to integrate Han and Mongols into a single unified political entity.