In early computers, all the electrical parts and their wiring had to be made separately and soldered individually to a circuit board. This arrangement was cumbersome and limited the number of components that could be used. Today, computers and other electronic devices use integrated circuits (ICs), in which all the electronic components are fabricated as a single unit. All the interconnections between the components are also part of that one unit. Integrated circuits are also called microchips, because they are small—about the size of a baby’s fingernail—and their components are generally microscopic. Huge numbers of components can be packed onto a single chip.
The invention of the microchip has enabled computers and other electronic equipment to be built much smaller, with far greater operating speeds, capacity, and reliability at significantly lower cost. It would not have been feasible to make personal computers without integrated circuits. Microchips also made possible the computerization of small electronic equipment and consumer products.
Integrated circuits perform many different functions. They are now found in nearly every electronic device, from computers to cell phones, cameras, televisions, microwave ovens, dishwashers, electric toothbrushes, cars, elevators, and factory equipment. The most complicated integrated circuits are microprocessors, which function as the main component—the central processing unit—of a digital computer. This kind of integrated circuit can interpret and execute program instructions as well as handle arithmetic operations. Microchips are also commonly used in computer memory devices and as signal processors.
An integrated circuit may be less than 0.2 inch (5 millimeters) square. Its main components are miniaturized active devices called transistors, which amplify, control, or generate an electric signal. A microchip may contain more than a billion of these tiny devices etched into its surface. The chip may also contain other active components called diodes as well as passive components such as capacitors and resistors, which store and resist electrical charges, respectively.
All the components of an integrated circuit are built up on a wafer made of a semiconducting material—typically silicon. A semiconductor such as silicon conducts some electricity but not much. It is neither a good conductor, which easily conducts electricity, nor an insulator, which resists the flow of electrical current.
In manufacturing an integrated circuit, carefully controlled amounts of impurities such as arsenic or boron are added to the silicon. This process is known as doping. The impurities affect the way electric current moves through the chip. In particular, the doped silicon can be used as a switch, turning current off and on as desired.
Doping creates some areas where extra electrons are available for conducting electrical current; these negatively charged areas are called n-type semiconductors. Other areas, called p-type semiconductors, have a deficiency of electrons and can conduct a positive charge. In a p-n junction, a layer of p-type semiconductor is bonded to a layer of n-type semiconductor. Electric current flows more easily across such a junction in one direction than in the other. Such junctions are the building blocks of the transistors, diodes, capacitors, and resistors on the microchip.
Microchip making is extremely precise. It is usually done in a special dust-free environment known as a “clean room,” since even microscopic contamination could render a chip defective.
Integrated circuits are typically made from a wafer of pure silicon. The chips are built up in extremely thin layers, with perhaps 30 or more layers in a final chip. Creating the different electrical components on a chip is a matter of outlining exactly where areas of n- and p-type are to be located on each layer. First, designers produce detailed drawings of exactly where each component should go in each layer of the circuit. A photographic image is made of each layer of the design, and the images are reduced until they are the size of the desired chip.
Each tiny image is used as a mask in a process known as photolithography. Some parts of the mask allow light to shine through, while others do not. The silicon wafer is coated in a material known as a photoresist, or resist. An ultraviolet light is shone on the wafer. In a typical method used, the resist exposed to the ultraviolet light undergoes a chemical change, making it easy to wash away. The exposed resist is dissolved, and a chemical is applied, etching away a layer of silicon in the area that had been exposed to the ultraviolet light. The silicon in the area that had been protected by the mask remains intact. A special chemical solvent is then used to remove the remaining resist. This process is repeated many times, building up the chip layer by layer.
Between these production stages, the silicon is doped with carefully controlled amounts of impurities such as arsenic and boron. Tiny lines of metal or conducting polycrystalline silicon are also built into the chip to provide connections, like wires, between its transistors. When the fabrication is complete, a final layer of insulating glass is added, and the wafer is sawed into individual chips. Each chip is tested, and those that pass are mounted in a hard plastic package. Each plastic package has metal connection pins to connect the chip to the device in which it will be used, such as the circuit board of a computer.
Integrated circuits have their origin in the invention of the transistor in 1947. It was invented by William B. Shockley and his team, including John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain, at the American Telephone and Telegraph Company’s Bell Laboratories. Shockley’s team found that, under the right circumstances, electrons would form a barrier at the surface of certain crystals. The team learned to control the flow of electricity through the crystal by manipulating this barrier. This allowed the team to create a device that could perform certain electrical operations, such as signal amplification, that were previously done by vacuum tubes. They named this device a transistor, from a combination of the words transfer and resistor.
The study of methods of creating electronic devices using solid materials became known as solid-state electronics. Solid-state devices proved to be much sturdier, easier to work with, more reliable, much smaller, and less expensive than vacuum tubes. Using the same principles and materials as in the making of transistors, engineers soon learned to create other electrical components, such as resistors and capacitors. Now that electrical devices could be made so small, the largest part of a circuit was the awkward wiring between the devices.
In 1958 Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments, Inc., and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation independently thought of a way to reduce circuit size further. They laid very thin paths of metal directly on the same piece of material as their devices. These small paths acted as wires. With this technique, an entire circuit could be “integrated” on a single piece of solid material, and an integrated circuit could thus be created.
Early integrated circuits of the 1950s included about 10 components. The first commercially successful microchip, made by Intel in 1974, had 4,800 transistors. Intel’s Pentium chip, made in 1993, had 3.2 million transistors, and more than a billion can now be included on a single piece of material the size of a pea. Working with that many vacuum tubes would have been unrealistically awkward and expensive. The invention of the integrated circuit made technologies of the Information Age feasible. Integrated circuits are now used extensively in all walks of life, from cars to toasters to amusement park rides.