following is the text of a short lecture delivered in Liberal Studies 401 at
Malaspina University College (now Vancouver Island University) by Ian Johnston.
This document is in the public domain, released June 1999]
Near the end
of his essay "Perpetual Peace" Kant squarely addresses a question that
we ought to be thoroughly familiar with by now, because it is almost certainly
the most frequent issue we have discussed from one text to another in Liberal
Studies. And that is question of the relationship between practical political
behaviour and morality, between how people do behave in politics and how they
ought to behave.
of political action recognizes almost immediately that political action, as it
actually occurs, is often, perhaps even usually, a morally questionable business
(deception, lying, cruelty, self-interest). At the same time most of us have a
sense that political behaviour could and should be better than it is.
Politicians, we hold, should subject their actions and decisions to some form of
This is the
ancient conflict between what the Greeks called Kratos (Political Force) and
Ethos (moral behaviour)--and there is no other issue which we have put on the
table more frequently than this one. Before addressing Kant's remarks, then, I'd
like to review some of the formulations. I'm doing this by way of an
introduction to the seminar discussions this afternoon, which can address in
greater detail Kant's contributions to this on going debate.
ago, at the start of LBST 301, we read the Odyssey. At the conclusion of
that story we see Odysseus in disguise carry out a ferocious revenge on the
suitors and their supporters--an action which involves killing, cruelty,
deception, lies, and courage and which is effective in restoring him to the
throne of Ithaka. Homer does not raise political questions directly, but the
story puts great pressure on the readers to explore the extent to which
Odysseus' effective use of force is justified, is, in other words, an acceptable
moral act. And the structure of the narrative leads most of us to accept that
what he does is just because the suitors have violated the most important moral
rules of that world, the sanctity of the home--a rule which the gods themselves
have repeatedly endorsed throughout the poem.
In this case,
the suitors have behaved in a recognizably normal way: out of self-interest,
ambition, power. And they have justified what they do by an appeal to their own
power: What are you going to do about it? We recognize, too, that, in the
context of the story they are morally wrong, because the guardians of moral
order in the world of the Odyssey, the gods, tell us repeatedly that the
suitors ought not to act that way. So when Odysseus carries out forcefully his
revenge, we recognize that as a morally justified political act. What makes it a
moral act is that it is in accordance with the principles of moral order which
govern the Odyssey (we may disagree with those principles, but in the
context of the text it seems clear that what Odysseus is doing is good).
The same is
true about the Lord's treatment of the Egyptian Pharaoh. Once again, we
questioned and debated the fairness of God's extremely forceful punishment of
the Egyptians, but the text encourages us to see that Pharaoh's political
behaviour is immoral and therefore his forceful punishment is deserved.
obviously makes this question of the just use of political power the central
issue in the trilogy. In fact, the resolution of that work strongly suggests
that a new organization in the polis--an assembly of citizens responsible for
matters of justice--will foster a better union of political force and moral
behaviour and keep in check a system of egocentric slaughter of the sort
manifested by Agamemnon's treatment of Troy and Clytaemnestra's treatment of
Agamemnon and Cassandra.
these stories because they were our first introduction in Liberal Studies to the
need to evaluate the use of political force in the context of a moral sense of
right and wrong. Put another way, we can say that we all acknowledge that
running a human society always requires the effective use of practical force in
all sorts of ways; but we also acknowledge that there are right and wrong ways
to apply this force, that political force, in itself, is not necessarily good or
bad. However, it needs to be guided by some sense of morality if we are to have
any sense of Justice.
Over the past
months we have looked at a number of texts which have explored this issue.
Plato, as we saw, made the balance between Ethos and Kratos central to the Republic,
and saw the best hope for a meaningful combination in the education of an elite
group of rulers. These people, since they most fully understood the nature of
the good (of right and wrong) would have all the power, so that their political
decisions would therefore always be just. Their understanding of moral issues is
essential if the force entrusted to them is to be used justly.
important to notice that Plato is not in the Republic undertaking an
analysis of how human beings actually do behave in the modern political arena
(although he does often remark on that behaviour). He is focusing above all on
what ought to be the case, on what a fully moral politics would be. And, as we
saw, he bases his main moral argument on the belief that some people are capable
of achieving full moral development through a specialized education (at least in
a thought experiment they are; his hopes that such a program as the Republic outlines
is at all practical are far more pessimistic). To those people, his thought
experiment concludes, we ought to entrust the power, since they will be the only
ones who understand how to use that power morally so as to ensure justice.
Anyone else will abuse the power entrusted to him.
like Plato, believed that virtue in the rulers was the best guarantee of justice
in the state, but he differed from Plato in how he thought such virtue might be
best encouraged and developed so that power in the state was exercised with an
appropriate sense of morality. And the Christian tradition, which relied heavily
on Plato and especially Aristotle for its thinking about politics, generally
agreed that virtue in the ruler, the responsibility of his or her Church
educators and advisors, was the surest way to achieve the just use of political
force. Hence, justice in the state (the moral use of power) depended above all
upon the education of the ruler.
In each of
these examples, the education of the person with the force is central, and there
is an institutional arrangement to bring about that education: in Plato it is a
complex and radically new system of schooling, in the Aristotelian tradition and
in the Christian tradition the Church based upon it, the emphasis is much more
on tradition. Whether we are talking about a utopian possibility or a practical
reform, these thinkers see that society must provide for putting power in the
hands of the most virtuous (or, conversely, making those with the power fully
decisive break with this ancient tradition of virtue comes in Machiavelli's The
Prince. For he spends most of his time making the case that if the Prince
concentrates on learning about the practical effectiveness of force (of Kratos)
then the Prince's virtue can be left out of account. I tried to make the case in
the lectures on Machiavelli that this seemed to me an amoral (and therefore
evil) position; my colleague tried to make the case that Machiavelli had a moral
end in view and was therefore a serious ethical arguer. I don't want to rehash
that argument, but simply state here the obvious point that Machiavelli clearly
does not believe that any moral education in the Prince is necessary (if you
agree with me because morality is irrelevant; if you agree with my colleague's
argument, because the moral ends, like the unification of Italy or the economic
well being of the citizens, are self-evident). If he can manipulate Kratos with
sufficient skill, cunning, flexibility, cruelty, and practical intelligence
(what Machiavelli calls virtu), then everything will be well. Hence the
old observation about Machiavelli, that there is no virtue in virtu.
This is a
decisive break with the older tradition because it emphatically shifts the major
emphasis in political theory away from the moral education of the ruler towards
the practically efficient application of political force to ensure the survival
and the continuing power of the government. It suggests, in effect, that the way
in which politics is in fact conducted is more important than the way politics
ought to be conducted.
way, we can say that for the ancient Greeks the supreme question of politics was
the way in which virtue in the ruler must guide his or her use of force so as to
produce justice. Thus, they focus, above all, on the education of the ruler in
morality. For Machiavelli the supreme question in politics is the effective use
of force to gain short-term success (which means maintaining or increasing one's
immediate power). He concentrates all his attention upon questions relating to
that issue, either ignoring morality as irrelevant or else assuming that the
moral ends are so self-evident that the Prince doesn't need to consider them (or
his education doesn't have to include any serious moral component).
In a similar
manner Hobbes pays no attention to the moral qualities of the sovereign. He
seems to assume that, if the sovereign has all the power, his self-interest in
having a powerful state will persuade him to leave his subjects alone so that
they can make lots of money and keep the blood of the state circulating. The
distribution of political power is, for Hobbes, the key question. Educating
people to use it properly is largely irrelevant because the moral questions,
such as they are, are self-evident. Besides, there's no point in relying
upon moral awareness of the rulers, simply because, although Hobbes admired
virtue, he didn't think there was enough of it to go around to make modern
government moral in any traditional sense of the word.
position is very different. He is concerned, above all, with achieving the
correct balance of state power and morality. For him, as for so many of his
contemporaries, moral freedom is the most vital characteristic of the human
individual and any check on that is unwelcome oppression. As we saw, Rousseau
strives to deal with this question in a new and very influential way: the power
(Kratos) must belong to all people equally. If they are educated sufficiently as
rational creatures, share common traditions, and can conveniently meet in an
assembly of all citizens to enact legislation (which determines the application
of power), then the proper combination of force and morality will be achieved
and justice will rule the state (a justice which provides freedom for all
because they all participate equally in it determining the application of
Rousseau's most distinctive contributions to this debate is, of course, his
strong sense, that the ideal combination of Kratos and Ethos, the balance on
which real justice depends, is possible only in a republic run by a majoritarian
democracy. And most of Rousseau's pessimism about such an arrangement stems from
his realization that this organization places too high a responsibility on the
individual citizen and creates far too tempting a scenario for government to
take over. His pessimism amounts to a clear sense that in such a republican
majoritarian democracy the balance of power will shift to those who are not
ruled by Ethos but rather by self-interest, vanity, and so on. And thus the
realities of how people are will probably overwhelm any possibilities for
realizing what they ought to be.
admiration for Rousseau comes, in large part, from Rousseau's insistence on the
importance of personal and public morality (an ethics based on reason and the
choice to live by its rules made by free, independent, self-reliant individuals)
in the modern state. But Kant is much more cautious about just what can and
cannot be done, and he has no recourse to some utopian model along Rousseau's
line. Kant fully acknowledges that what goes on in the name of politics is
largely as Machiavelli described it: amoral self-interest. At the same time,
Kant holds out the hope that Ethos--the moral guiding of political force--must
form a part of political action.
task, as an Enlightenment moralist, is to show how in the modern state moral
considerations are still of central importance as a means of guiding Kratos. He
is attempting to address the old question--as ancient for us as the Old
Testament, Odyssey, and the Oresteia: Why should a powerful
politician pay any attention to moral issues? In terms of the brief
retrospective I have sketched out, Kant might be seen as attempting to show that
Machiavelli and Hobbes were wrong: the analysis of the modern political state
cannot simply focus on power arrangements and strategies for efficient
applications of power.
moralist, Kant insists that politics is not just a matter of prudence (i.e.,
material success in getting one's way in the daily conflicts of the political
world). There must, by contrast, be what he calls "a limiting condition of
politics," so that political affairs are in the command of the moral
politician, "one who so interprets the principles of political prudence
that they can be coherent with morality" (128).
is central to Kant's call for universal peace, because, as he points out
repeatedly, if all statesmen rely only on political prudence (on Machiavellian
or Hobbesian principles), then there is no ground for any international
cooperation, because power struggles between competing independent states will
determine all politics. Only the clear recognition of a commitment to a
universal rational moral duty can achieve the reconciliation he sees as
essential to peace:
continent that feels itself to be superior to another, regardless of whether
or not the latter stands in the way of the former, will not fail to exercise
the means of increasing its power, plundering and conquering. Thus, all
theoretical plans for civil, international, and cosmopolitan rights dissolve
into empty, impractical ideals; by contrast, a practice that is based on
empirical principles of human nature and that does not regard it demeaning to
formulate its maxims in accord with the way of the world [i.e., in accordance
with universal moral laws] can alone hope to find a secure foundation for its
structure of political prudence. (128)
what's interesting about Kant in this regard, of course, is that he is the first
thinker we have read seriously to consider the question of permanent peace
between nations (although Rousseau briefly hints at this in the Discourse on
Inequality). All of the others have more or less assumed that warfare
between states is a given fact of life and that, therefore, in organizing the
state we need above all to assume acts of aggression from outside the polis.
wants us to realize is that there are important reasons for believing that
submitting our prudential strategies, our efficient applications of political
might, to the scrutiny of moral evaluation and adjusting our prudential
political decisions in the light of such evaluation is something we ought to do.
Everything in this position depends upon our accepting the central claim Kant
makes in all of these essays: that there are firm grounds for acknowledging such
a role for rational morality.
that there are such firm grounds Kant puts forward a number of points. Some of
the more important are as follows:
repeatedly puts us a the painful situation of having to think about the
consequences of rejecting his view of world history. Since we all, as rational
beings, want world peace, since we, in our freedom, think that this is something
we ought to strive for, how is it to be achieved? This urgent desire makes no
sense, Kant argues, in a world that is mechanically governed and in which the
concept of moral freedom, as he defines it, is therefore meaningless (128).
Thus, to reject Kant's moral interpretation of history is to be thrown into a
difficult situation of grappling with a universal moral desire for peace without
any means to achieve it (except perhaps by accident). Only faith in the sort of
rational moral progress of the sort he proposes answers to the free moral
desires of human beings.
Second, if we
accept Kant's vision of such rational moral progress, then any politics based
merely on prudence (on self-interested use of power for national or personal
survival) is going to defeat such progress (129). For then the conduct of
politics is ruled, not by universal moral maxims, but by the survival strategies
he lists on p. 130: pure Machiavellian principles designed to ensure the
forceful success through deceit, denial, opportunism, and so on.
also makes the empirical point (which I tried to stress in discussions of
Machiavelli) that an examination of the facts of history does not necessarily
establish clearly that prudential politics is, in fact, successful.
Machiavellian tactics employed to achieve a particular aim can, as often as not,
prove self-defeating. Any practical political measure is going to have an
uncertain outcome. Therefore, we cannot and should not base any moral desire for
perpetual peace upon it.
also makes the deterministic argument (which is, as we shall see, central to
Marx), that if we do not, in fact, put moral considerations into our political
decisions making, then history will eventually force us to do that anyway. The
inexorable process of history, which will very gradually bring about an
increasing enlightenment and a cosmopolitan world federation, is not something
we can finally resist. Thus, in effect, he is claiming history is on his side,
no matter what we do. However, as rational beings we have a moral obligation to
assist this historical process "to make the state of public right actual,
though only through an unending process of approximation to it. . . ."
(139). One might want to cite environmental awareness as one rational point
which history is forcing us to acknowledge, whether we approve of it or not.
It is worth
nothing that this last point, about the inevitable progression of history, has
very ancient roots in the Old Testament notion that God is on Israel's side,
that He has a covenant with the faithful, and that He will lead them to the
promised land. God's providence, acting through history, will resolve issues
eventually; however, that does not release the individual Israelite from the
religious obligation to follow the rules, to contribute to the progress of
Kant has, of
course, thoroughly secularized this notion--seeing perpetual peace as the end
goal and a rational idea working itself out in history as the engine of
progress. But we should alert ourselves as to the extent to which Kant's ethics
and his view of history has roots in some of the most deeply held and ancient
convictions of Western civilization (particularly the Protestant version of
find Kant's position on these matters entirely persuasive or not, we cannot
avoid the fact that the position he has outlined in this essay has been
enormously influential. While our faith in the gradual enlightenment forced upon
us by history may be considerably more tenuous than his (and his is far from
robust), it seems that many of us still place our best hopes for world peace on
a proper balance of force and morality of the sort that Kant suggests. We may
have grown quite cynical about many aspects of domestic politics, but we are
still, to a greater or less extent, faithful to Kant's notion that if we want to
foster international peace, we must recognize our rational obligations to all
other human beings, difficult and expensive and unwelcome as such steps may be.
Our desire to have international leaders who commit crimes against humanity
brought to the bar of justice is a clear expression of this faith.
At a time
when immigration policies and Canada's commitment to peace-keeping missions and
foreign aid are under attack, reading Kant's essay is a powerful reminder of why
these practical political measures matter from the moral standpoint. For we
still have to be prepared to meet the challenge of Thrasymachus in the opening
of the Republic that the only valuable political stance is that justice
is the interests of the stronger, that might makes right, that we have no moral
obligations, only imperatives of power.