- Theories are abstract explanations about the relationship between two classes of phenomena. Theories may be used to predict future events or behaviors. Theories are tested to determine the their validity. There are a number of theories attempting to explain criminal behavior and rehabilitation of the offender.
- Psychoanalytic theory, as developed by Sigmund Freud, addresses different stages of psychological development. The id, ego, and superego can be used to explain criminal behavior. The id seeks gratification. The ego acts to restrain the id. The superego exercises a sense of morality over the ego. The superego acts to keep primitive id impulses in check. The superego is influenced by the individual's relationship to the parents during early stages of development. The probation/parole officer must distinguish between a weak or an overacting superego to determine proper handling of the offender.
- In probation/parole, psychoanalytic theory has been applied through the use of social casework. This method focuses on problems that block the effectiveness of the individual to carry out expected social roles. Social casework, sometimes referred to as forensic social work, looks for information about the offender's background and what problems may exist. This is accomplished through assessment, planning, and action.
- Behavior modification rejects psychoanalytic theory. Behavior modification posits that behavior is the result of learning responses. Behavior is strengthened by consequences. Consequences are viewed as reinforcers. Rewards are positive reinforcements. Negative reinforcement occurs after the removal of a stimulus.
- Other behavior modification systems include operant conditioning, cognitive behavioral therapy, aversive therapy, and behavioral contracting.
- Reality therapy is based on the theory that all of us are born with at least two built-in psychological needs. Those needs include the need to belong and be loved, and also the need for gaining self-worth and recognition. Reality therapy is symptom oriented. It is about making the client responsible for his or her behavior. This therapy evolved within the field of corrections.
- This chapter also examines several sociological theories. Anomie, a concept developed by Durkheim and later adapted by Merton, results when goals and means conflict. Several modes of adaptation are discussed. Retreatism and innovation are of particular interest for probation and parole practice.
- Differential association posits that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with criminal companions. Within probation and parole practices, this means stipulating that the probationer/parolee refrain from contact with known offenders.
- A weak bond to social institutions is the premise of social control theory. The premise of drift theory is that delinquents often drift between criminal behavior and conventional behavior and eventually become law-abiding adults. Labeling theory examines the reaction of society to the behavior of the offender. The offender may be labeled a deviant, delinquent, criminal, or con. This label may affect the probationer or parolee.
- The chapter ends with a discussion of conflict theory, which posits that capitalism brings about unequal social arrangements that lead to criminal behavior.