- The First Caliph, Abu Bakr (632-634
- The Second Caliph, 'Umar (634-644
- The Third Caliph, Uthman (644-656
- The Fourth Caliph, Ali (656-661
Meaning of the Word 'Caliph'
The word 'Caliph' is the English
form of the Arabic word 'Khalifa,' which is short for Khalifatu
Rasulil-lah. The latter expression means Successor
to the Messenger of God, the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace
be on him). The title 'Khalifatu Rasulil-lah'. was first used for
Abu Bakr, who was elected head of the Muslim community after the
death of the Prophet.
The Significance of the Caliphate
The mission of Prophet Muhammad (peace
be on him), like that of the earlier messengers of God, was to call
people to the worship of and submission to the One True God. In
practice, submission to God means to obey His injunctions as given
in the Holy Qur'an and as exemplified by Sunnah (the practice of
the Prophet). As successor to the Prophet, the Caliph was the head
of the Muslim community and his primary responsibility was to continue
in the path of the Prophet. Since religion was perfected and the
door of Divine revelation was closed at the death of the Prophet,
the Caliph was to make all laws in accordance with the Qur'an and
the Sunnah. He was a ruler over Muslims but not their sovereign
since sovereignty belongs to God alone. He was to be obeyed as long
as he obeyed God. He was responsible for creating and maintaining
conditions under which it would be easy for Muslims to live according
to Islamic principles, and to see that justice was done to all.
Abu Bakr, at the time he accepted the caliphate, stated his position
"The weak among you shall
be strong with me until their rights have been vindicated; and the
strong among you shall he weak with me until, if the Lord wills,
I have taken what is due from them... Obey me as long as I obey
God and His Messenger. When I disobey Him and His Prophet, then
obey me not."
The Rightly-Guided Caliphs (Al-Khulafa-ur-Rashidun)
Those Caliphs who truly followed
in the Prophet's foot steps are called 'The Rightly-Guided Caliphs'
(Al-Khulafa-ur Rashidun in Arabic). They are the first four Caliphs:
Abu Bakr, 'Umar, Uthman and Ali. All four were among thc earliest
and closest Companions of the Prophet (peace be on him). They lived
simple and righteous lives and strove hard for the religion of God.
Their justice was impartial, their treatment of others was kind
and merciful, and they were one with the people - the first among
equals. After these four, the later Caliphs assumed the manners
of kings and emperors and the true spirit of equality of ruler and
ruled diminished to a considerable extent in the political life
It should be clearly understood that
the mission of Prophet Muhammad (peace be on him), and hence that
of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, was not political, social or economic
reform, although such reforms were a logical consequence of the
success of this mission, nor the unity of a nation and the establishment
of an empire, although the nation did unite and vast areas came
under one administration, nor the spread of a civilization or culture,
although many civilizations and cultures developed, but only to
deliver the message of God to all the peoples of the world and to
invite them to submit to Him, while being the foremost among those
What About the Present?
The primary responsibility of an
Islamic government is still the same as it was in the days of the
early Caliphs: to make all laws in accordance with the Qur'an and
the Sunnah, to make positive efforts to create and maintain conditions
under which it will be possible and easy for Muslims to live an
Islamic life, to secure impartial and speedy justice for all, and
to strive hard in the path of God. Any government which is committed
to such a policy is truly following the message delivered by the
Prophet (peace be on him).
The First Caliph, Abu
Bakr (632-634 A.C.)
"If I were to take a friend other than
my Lord, I would take Abu Bakr as a friend." (Hadith)
Election to the Caliphate
The Prophet's closest Companion,
Abu Bakr, was not present when the Holy Prophet (peace be on him)
breathed his last in the apartment of his beloved wife of later
years, Aisha, Abu Bakr's daughter. When he came to know of the Prophet's
passing, Abu Bakr hurried to the house of sorrow.
"How blessed was your life
and how beatific is your death,"
he whispered as he kissed the cheek
of his beloved friend and master who now was no more.
When Abu Bakr came out of the Prophet's
apartment and broke the news, disbelief and dismay gripped the community
of Muslims in Medina. Muhammad (peace be on him) had been the leader,
the guide and the bearer of Divine revelation through whom they
had been brought from idolatry and barbarism into the way of God.
How could he die? Even Umar, one of the bravest and strongest of
the Prophet's Companions, lost his composure and drew his sword
and threatened to kill anyone who said that the Prophet was dead.
Abu Bakr gently pushed him aside, ascended the steps of the lectern
in the mosque and addressed the people, saying
"O people, verily whoever
worshipped Muhammad, behold! Muhammad is indeed dead. But whoever
worships God, behold! God is alive and will never die."
And then he concluded with a verse
from the Qur'an:
"And Muhammad is but a Messenger.
Many Messengers have gone before him; if then he dies or is killed,
will you turn back upon your heels?" [Qur'an 3:144]
On hearing these words, the people
were consoled. Despondency gave place to confidence and tranquillity.
This critical moment had passed. But the Muslim community was now
faced with an extremely serious problem: that of choosing a leader.
After some discussion among the Companions of the Prophet who had
assembled in order to select a leader, it became apparent that no
one was better suited for this responsibility than Abu Bakr. A portion
of the speech the First Caliph gave after his election has already
been quoted in the introduction.
Abu Bakr's Life
Abu Bakr ('The Owner of Camels')
was not his real name. He acquired this name later in life because
of his great interest in raising camels. His real name was Abdul
Ka'aba ('Slave of Ka'aba'), which Muhammad (peace be on him) later
changed to Abdullah ('Slave of God'). The Prophet also gave him
the title of 'Siddiq' - 'The Testifier to the Truth.'
Abu Bakr was a fairly wealthy merchant,
and before he embraced Islam, was a respected citizen of Mecca.
He was three years younger than Muhammad (peace be on him) and some
natural affinity drew them together from earliest child hood. He
remained the closest Companion of the Prophet all through the Prophet's
life. When Muhammad first invited his closest friends and relatives
to Islam, Abu Bakr was among the earliest to accept it. He also
persuaded Uthman and Bilal to accept Islam. In the early days of
the Prophet's mission, when the handful of Muslims were subjected
to relentless persecution and torture, Abu Bakr bore his full share
of hardship. Finally when God's permission came to emigrate from
Mecca, he was the one chosen by the Prophet to accompany him on
the dangerous journey to Medina. In the numerous battles which took
place during the life of the Prophet, Abu Bakr was always by his
side. Once, he brought all his belongings to the Prophet, who was
raising money for the defence of Medina. The Prophet asked "Abu
Bakr, what did you leave for your family?" The reply came: "God
and His Prophet."
Even before Islam, Abu Bakr was known
to be a man of upright character and amiable and compassionate nature.
All through his life he was sensitive to human suffering and kind
to the poor and helpless. Even though he was wealthy, he lived very
simply and spent his money for charity, for freeing slaves and for
the cause of Islam. He often spent part of the night in supplication
and prayer. He shared with his family a cheerful and affectionate
Such, then, was the man upon whom
the burden of leadership fell at the most sensitive period in the
history of the Muslims.
As the news of the Prophet's death
spread, a number of tribes rebelled and refused to pay Zakat (poor-due),
saying that this was due only to the Prophet (peace be on him).
At the same time a number of impostors claimed that the prophethood
had passed to them after Muhammad and they raised the standard of
revolt. To add to all this, two powerful empires, the Eastern Roman
and the Persian, also threatened the new-born Islamic state at Medina.
Under these circumstances, many Companions
of the Prophet, including Umar, advised Abu Bakr to make concessions
to the Zakat evaders, at least for a time. The new Caliph disagreed.
He insisted that the Divine Law cannot be divided, that there is
no distinction between the obligations of Zakat and Salat (prayer),
and that any compromise with the injunctions of God would eventually
erode the foundations of Islam. Umar and others were quick to realize
their error of judgment. The revolting tribes attacked Medina but
the Muslims were prepared. Abu Bakr himself led the charge, forcing
them to retreat. He then made a relentless war on the false claimants
to prophethood, most of whom submitted and again professed lslam.
The threat from the Roman Empire
had actually arisen earlier, during the Prophet's lifetime. The
Prophet had organized an army under the command of Usama, the son
of a freed slave. The army had not gone far when the Prophet had
fallen ill so they stopped. After the death of the Prophet the question
was raised whether the army should be sent again or should remain
for the defence of Medina. Again Abu Bakr showed a firm determination.
He said, "I shall send Usama's army on its way as ordered by the
Prophet, even if I am left alone."
The final instructions he gave to
Usama prescribed a code of conduct in war which remains unsurpassed
to this day. Part of his instructions to the Muslim army were:
"Do not be deserters, nor
be guilty of disobedience. Do not kill an old man, a woman or a
child. Do not injure date palms and do not cut down fruit trees.
Do not slaughter any sheep or cows or camels except for food. You
will encounter persons who spend their lives in monasteries. Leave
them alone and do not molest them."
Khalid bin Waleed had been chosen
by the Prophet (peace be on him) on several occasions to lead Muslim
armies. A man of supreme courage and a born leader, his military
genius came to full flower during the Caliphate of Abu Bakr. Throughout
Abu Bakr's reign Khalid led his troops from one victory to another
against the attacking Romans.
Another contribution of Abu Bakr
to the cause of Islam was the collection and compilation of the
verses of the Qur'an.
Abu Bakr died on 21 Jamadi-al Akhir,
13 A.H. (23 August 634 A.C.), at the age of sixty-three, and was
buried by the side of the Holy Prophet (peace be on him). His caliphate
had been of a mere twenty-seven months duration. In this brief span,
however, Abu Bakr had managed, by the Grace of God, to strengthen
and consolidate his community and the state, and to secure the Muslims
against the perils which had threatened their existence.
The Second Caliph,
Umar (634-644 A.C.)
"God has placed truth upon Umar's tongue
and heart. (Hadith)"
During his last illness Abu Bakr
had conferred with his people, particularly the more eminent among
them. After this meeting they chose 'Umar as his successor. 'Umar
was born into a respected Quraish family thirteen years after the
birth of Muhammad (peace be on him). Umar's family was known for
its extensive knowledge of genealogy. When he grew up, 'Umar was
proficient in this branch of knowledge as well as in swordsmanship,
wrestling and the art of speaking. He also learned to read and write
while still a child, a very rare thing in Mecca at that time. 'Umar
earned his living as a merchant. His trade took him to many foreign
lands and he met all kinds of people. This experience gave him an
insight into the affairs and problems of men. 'Umar's personality
was dynamic, self-assertive, frank and straight forward. He always
spoke whatever was in his mind even if it displeased others.
'Umar was twenty-seven when the Prophet
(peace be on him) proclaimed his mission. The ideas Muhammad was
preaching enraged him as much as they did the other notables of
Mecca. He was just as bitter against anyone accepting Islam as others
among the Quraish. When his slave-girl accepted Islam he beat her
until he himself was exhausted and told her, "I have stopped because
I am tired, not out of pity for you." The story of his embracing
Islam is an interesting one. One day, full of anger against the
Prophet, he drew his sword and set out to kill him. A friend met
him on the way. When 'Umar told him what he planned to do, his friend
informed him that 'Umar's own sister, Fatima, and her husband had
also accepted Islam. 'Umar went straight to his sister's house where
he found her reading from pages of the Qur'an. He fell upon her
and beat her mercilessly. Bruised and bleeding, she told her brother,
"Umar, you can do what you like, but you cannot turn our hearts
away from Islam." These words produced a strange effect upon 'Umar.
What was this faith that made even weak women so strong of heart?
He asked his sister to show him what she had been reading; he was
at once moved to the core by the words of the Qur'an and immediately
grasped their truth. He went straight to the house where the Prophet
was staying and vowed allegiance to him.
Umar made no secret of his acceptance
of Islam. He gathered the Muslims and offered prayers at the Ka'aba.
This boldness and devotion of an influential citizen of Mecca raised
the morale of the small community of Muslims. Nonetheless 'Umar
was also subjected to privations, and when permission for emigration
to Medina came, he also left Mecca. The soundness of 'Umar's judgment,
his devotion to the Prophet (peace be on him), his outspokenness
and uprightness won for him a trust and confidence from the Prophet
which was second only to that given to Abu Bakr. The Prophet gave
him the title 'Farooq' which means the 'Separator of Truth from
False hood.' During the Caliphate of Abu Bakr, 'Umar was his closest
assistant and adviser. When Abu Bakr died, all the people of Medina
swore allegiance to 'Umar, and on 23 Jamadi-al-Akhir, 13 A.H., he
was proclaimed Caliph.
After taking charge of his office, 'Umar
spoke to the Muslims of Medina:
"...O people, you have some
rights on me which you can always claim. One of your rights is that
if anyone of you comes to me with a claim, he should leave satisfied.
Another of your rights is that you can demand that I take nothing
unjustly from the revenues of the State. You can also demand that...
I fortify your frontiers and do not put you into danger. It is also
your right that if you go to battle I should look after your families
as a father would while you are away. "O people, remain conscious
of God, forgive me my faults and help me in my task. Assist me in
enforcing what is good and forbidding what is evil. Advise me regarding
the obligations that have been imposed upon me by God..."
The most notable feature of 'Umar's
caliphate was the vast expansion of Islam. Apart from Arabia, Egypt,
Iraq, Palestine and Iran also came under the protection of the Islamic
government. But the greatness of 'Umar himself lies in the quality
of his rule. He gave a practical meaning to the Qur'anic injunction:
"O you who believe, stand
out firmly for justice as witnesses to God, even as against yourselves,
or your parents, or your kin, and whether it concerns rich or poor,
for God can best protect both." [Qur'an 4:135]
Once a woman brought a claim against
the Caliph 'Umar. When 'Umar appeared on trial before the judge,
the judge stood up as a sign of respect toward him. 'Umar reprimanded
him, saying, "This is the first act of injustice you did to this
He insisted that his appointed governors
live simple lives, keep no guard at their doors and be accessible
to the people at all times, and he himself set the example for them.
Many times foreign envoys and messengers sent to him by his generals
found him resting under a palm tree or praying in the mosque among
the people, and it was difficult for them to distinguish which man
was the Caliph. He spent many a watchful night going about the streets
of Medina to see whether anyone needed help or assistance. The general
social and moral tone of the Muslim society at that time is well-illustrated
by the words of an Egyptian who was sent to spy on the Muslims during
their Egyptian campaign. He reported:
"I have seen a people, every one
of whom loves death more than he loves life. They cultivate humility
rather than pride. None is given to material ambitions. Their mode
of living is simple... Their commander is their equal. They make
no distinction between superior and inferior, between master and
slave. When the time of prayer approaches, none remains behind..."
'Umar gave his government an administrative
structure. Departments of treasury, army and public revenues were
established. Regular salaries were set up for soldiers. A popuation
census was held. Elaborate land surveys were conducted to assess
equitable taxes. New cities were founded. The areas which came under
his rule were divided into provinces and governors were appointed.
New roads were laid, canals were lug and wayside hotels were built.
Provision was made for he support of the poor and the needy from
public funds. He defined, by precept and by example, the rights
and privileges of non-Muslims, an example of which is the following
contract with the Christians of Jerusalem:
"This is the protection which the
servant of God, 'Umar, the Ruler of the Believers has granted to
the people of Eiliya [Jerusalem]. The protection is for their lives
and properties, their churches and crosses, their sick and healthy
and for all their coreligionists. Their churches shall not be used
for habitation, nor shall they be demolished, nor shall any injury
be done to them or to their compounds, or to their crosses, nor
shall their properties be injured in any way. There shall be no
compulsion for these people in the matter of religion, nor shall
any of them suffer any injury on account of religion... Whatever
is written herein is under the covenant of God and the responsibility
of His Messenger, of the Caliphs and of the believers, and shall
hold good as long as they pay Jizya [the tax for their defense]
imposed on them."
Those non-Muslims who took part in
defense together with the Muslims were exempted from paying Jizya,
and when the Muslims had to retreat from a city whose non-Muslim
citizens had paid this tax for their defense, the tax was returned
to the non-Muslims. The old, the poor and the disabled of Muslims
and non-Muslims alike were provided for from the public treasury
and from the Zakat funds.
In 23 A.H., when Umar returned to
Medina from Hajj;, he raised his hands and prayed,
"O God! I am advanced in
years, my bones are weary, my powers are declining, and the people
for whom I am responsible have spread far and wide. Summon me back
to Thyself, my lord!" Some time later, when 'Umar went to the mosque
to lead a prayer, a Magian named Abu Lulu Feroze, who had a grudge
against 'Umar on a personal matter, attacked him with a dagger and
stabbed him several times. Umar reeled and fell to the ground. When
he learned that the assassin was a Magian, he sid, "Thank God he
is not a Muslim."
'Umar died in the first week of Muharram,
24 A.H., and was buried by the side of the Holy Prophet (peace be
The Third Caliph, Uthman
"Every Prophet has an assistant,
and my assistant will be Uthman." (Hadith)
When 'Umar fell under the assassin's
dagger, before he died the people asked him to nominate his successor.
'Umar appointed a committee consisting of six of the ten companions
of the Prophet (peace be on him) about whom the Prophet had said,
"They are the people of Heaven" - Ali, Uthman, Abdul Rahman, Sa'ad,
Al-Zubayr and Talha - to select the next Caliph from among themselves.
He also outlined the procedure to be followed if any differences
of opinion should arise. Abdul Rahman withdrew his name. He was
then authorized by the committee to nominate the Caliph. After two
days of discussion among the candidates and after the opinions of
the Muslims in Medina had been ascertained, the choice was finally
limited to Uthman and Ali. Abdul Rahman came to the mosque together
with other Muslims, and after a brief speech and questioning of
the two men, swore allegiance to Uthman. All those present did the
same, and Uthman became the third Caliph of Islam in the month of
Muharram, 24 A.H.
Uthman bin Affan was born seven years
after the Holy Prophet (peace be on him). He belonged to the Omayyad
branch of the Quraish tribe. He learned to read and write at an
early age, and as a young man became a successful merchant. Even
before Islam Uthman had been noted for his truthfulness and integrity.
He and Abu Bakr were close friends, and it was Abu Bakr who brought
him to Islam when he was thirty-four years of age. Some years later
he married the Prophet's second daughter, Ruqayya. In spite of his
wealth and position, his relatives subjected him to torture because
he had embraced Islam, and he was forced to emigrate to Abyssinia.
Some time later he returned to Mecca but soon migrated to Medina
with the other Muslims. In Medina his business again began to flourish
and he regained his former prosperity. Uthman's generosity had no
limits. On various occasions he spent a great portion of his wealth
for the welfare of the Muslims, for charity and for equipping the
Muslim armies. That is why he came to be known as 'Ghani' meaning
Uthman's wife, Ruqayya was seriously
ill just before the Battle of Badr and he was excused by the Prophet
(peace be on him) from participating in the battle. The illness
Ruqayya proved fatal, leaving Uthman deeply grieved. The Prophet
was moved and offered Uthman the hand of another of his daughters,
Kulthum. Because he had the high privilege of having two daughters
of the Prophet as wives Uthman was known as 'The Possessor of the
Two Lights. '
Uthman participated in the Battles
of Uhud and the Trench. After the encounter of the Trench, the Prophet
(peace be on him) determined to perform Hajj and sent Uthman as
his emissary to the Quraish in Mecca, who detained him. The episode
ended in a treaty with the Meccans known as the Treaty of Hudaibiya.
The portrait we have of Uthman is
of an unassuming, honest, mild, generous and very kindly man, noted
especially for his modesty and his piety. He often spent part of
the night in prayer, fasted every second or third day, performed
hajj every year, and looked after the needy of the whole community.
In spite of his wealth, he lived very simply and slept on bare sand
in the courtyard of the Prophet's mosque. Uthman knew the Qur'an
from memory and had an intimate knowledge of the context and circumstances
relating to each verse.
During Uthman's rule the characteristics
of Abu Bakr's and Umar's caliphates - impartial justice for all,
mild and humane policies, striving in the path of God, and the expansion
of Islam - continued. Uthman's realm extended in the west to Morocco,
in the east to Afghanistan, and in the north to Armenia and Azerbaijan.
During his caliphate a navy was organized, administrative divisions
of the state were revised, and many public projects were expanded
and completed. Uthman sent prominent Companions of the Prophet (peace
be on him) as his personal deputies to various provinces to scrutinize
the conduct of officials and the condition of the people.
Uthman's most notable contribution
to the religion of God was the compilation of a complete and authoritative
text of the Qur'an. A large number of copies of this text were made
and distributed all over the Muslim world.
Uthman ruled for twelve years. The
first six years were marked by internal peace and tranquility, but
during the second half of his caliphate a rebellion arose. The Jews
and the Magians, taking advantage of dissatisfaction among the people,
began conspiring against Uthman, and by publicly airing their complaints
and grievances, gained so much sympathy that it became difficult
to distinguish friend from foe.
It may seem surprising that a ruler
of such vast territories, whose armies were matchless, was unable
to deal with these rebels. If Uthman had wished, the rebellion could
have been crushed at the very moment it began. But he was reluctant
to be the first to shed the blood of Muslims, however rebellious
they might be. He preferred to reason with them, to persuade them
with kindness and generosity. He well remembered hearing the Prophet
(peace be on him) say, "Once the sword is unsheathed among my followers,
it will not be sheathed until the Last Day."
The rebels demanded that he abdicate
and some of the Companions advised him to do so. He would gladly
have followed this course of action, but again he was bound by a
solemn pledge he had given to the Prophet. "Perhaps God will clothe
you with a shirt, Uthman" the Prophet had told him once, "and if
the people want you to take it off, do not take it off for them."
Uthman said to a well-wisher on a day when his house was surrounded
by the rebels, "God's Messenger made a covenant with me and I shall
show endurance in adhering to it."
After a long siege, the rebels broke
into Uthman's house and murdered him. When the first assassin's
sword struck Uthman, he was reciting the verse:
"Verily, God sufficeth thee;
He is the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing" [Qur'an 2:137]
Uthman breathed his last on the afternoon
of Friday, 17 Dhul Hijja, 35 A.H. (June. (656 A.C.). He was eighty-four
years old. The power of the rebels was so great that Uthman's body
lay unburied until Saturday night when he was buried in his blood-stained
clothes, the shroud which befits all martyrs in the cause of God.
The Fourth Caliph,
Ali (656-661 A.C.)
"You [Ali] are my brother in this world
and the next." (Hadith)
After Uthman's martyrdom, the office
of the caliphate remained unfilled for two or three days. Many people
insisted that Ali should take up the office, but he was embarrassed
by the fact that the people who pressed him hardest were the rebels,
and he therefore declined at first. When the notable Companions of
the Prophet (peace be on him) urged him, however, he finally agreed.
Ali bin Abi Talib was the first cousin
of the Prophet (peace be on him). More than that, he had grown up
in the Prophet's own household, later married his youngest daughter,
Fatima, and remained in closest association with him for nearly
Ali was ten years old when the Divine
Message came to Muhammad (peace be on him). One night he saw the
Prophet and his wife Khadijah bowing and prostrating. He asked the
Prophet about the meaning of their actions. The Prophet told him
that they were praying to God Most High and that Ali too should
accept Islam. Ali said that he would first like to ask his father
about it. He spent a sleepless night, and in the morning he went
to the Prophet and said, "When God created me He did not consult
my father, so why should I consult my father in order to serve God?"
and he accepted the truth of Muhammad's message.
When the Divine command came, "And
warn thy nearest relatives" [Qur'an 26:214], Muhammad (peace be
on him) invited his relatives for a meal. After it was finished,
he addressed them and asked, "Who will join me in the cause of God?"
There was utter silence for a while, and then Ali stood up. "I am
the youngest of all present here," he said, "My eyes trouble me
because they are sore and my legs are thin and weak, but I shall
join you and help you in whatever way I can." The assembly broke
up in derisive laughter. But during the difficult wars in Mecca,
Ali stood by these words and faced all the hardships to which the
Muslims were subjected. He slept in the bed of the Prophet when
the Quraish planned to murder Muhammad. It was he to whom the Prophet
entrusted, when he left Mecca, the valuables which had been given
to him for safekeeping, to be returned to their owners.
Apart from the expedition of Tabuk,
Ali fought in all the early battles of Islam with great distinction,
particularly in the expedition of Khaybar. It is said that in the
Battle of Uhud he received more than sixteen wounds.
The Prophet (peace be on him) loved
Ali dearly and called him by many fond names. Once the Prophet found
him sleeping in the dust. He brushed off Ali's clothes and said
fondly, "Wake up, Abu Turab (Father of Dust)." The Prophet also
gave him the title of 'Asadullah' ('Lion of God').
Ali's humility, austerity, piety,
deep knowledge of the Qur'an and his sagacity gave him great distinction
among the Prophet's Companions. Abu Bakr, 'Umar and Uthman consulted
him frequently during their caliphates. Many times 'Umar had made
him his vice-regent at Medina when he was away. Ali was also a great
scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of grammar
and rhetoric. His speeches, sermons and letters served for generations
afterward as models of literary expression. Many of his wise and
epigrammatic sayings have been preserved. Ali thus had a rich and
versatile personality. In spite of these attainments he remained
a modest and humble man. Once during his caliphate when he was going
about the marketplace, a man stood up in respect and followed him.
"Do not do it," said Ali. "Such manners are a temptation for a ruler
and a disgrace for the ruled."
Ali and his household lived extremely
simple and austere lives. Sometimes they even went hungry themselves
because of Ali's great generosity, and none who asked for help was
ever turned away from his door. His plain, austere style of living
did not change even when he was ruler over a vast domain.
As mentioned previously, Ali accepted
the caliphate very reluctantly. Uthman's murder and the events surrounding
it were a symptom, and also became a cause, of civil strife on a
large scale. Ali felt that the tragic situation was mainly due to
inept governors. He therefore dismissed all the governors who had
been appointed by Uthman and appointed new ones. All the governors
excepting Muawiya, the governor of Syria, submitted to his orders.
Muawiya declined to obey until Uthman's blood was avenged. The Prophet's
widow Aisha also took the position that Ali should first bring the
murderers to trial. Due to the chaotic conditions during the last
days of Uthman it was very difficult to establish the identity of
the murderers, and Ali refused to punish anyone whose guilt was
not lawfully proved. Thus a battle between the army of Ali and the
supporters of Aisha took place. Aisha later realized her error of
judgment and never forgave herself for it.
The situation in Hijaz (the part
of Arabia in which Mecca and Medina are located) became so troubled
that Ali moved his capital to Iraq. Muawiya now openly rebelled
against Ali and a fierce battle was fought between their armies.
This battle was inconclusive, and Ali had to accept the de facto
government of Muawiya in Syria.
However, even though the era of Ali's
caliphate was marred by civil strife, he nevertheless introduced
a number of reforms, particularly in the levying and collecting
It was the fortieth year of Hijra.
A fanatical group called Kharijites, consisting of people who had
broken away from Ali due to his compromise with Muawiya, claimed
that neither Ali, the Caliph, nor Muawiya, the ruler of Syria, nor
Amr bin al-Aas, the ruler of Egypt, were worthy of rule. In fact,
they went so far as to say that the true caliphate came to an end
with 'Umar and that Muslims should live without any ruler over them
except God. They vowed to kill all three rulers, and assassins were
dispatched in three directions.
The assassins who were deputed to
kill Muawiya and Amr did not succeed and were captured and executed,
but Ibn-e-Muljim, the assassin who was commissioned to kill Ali,
accomplished his task. One morning when Ali was absorbed in prayer
in a mosque, Ibn-e-Muljim stabbed him with a poisoned sword. On
the 20th of Ramadan, 40 A.H., died the last of the Rightly Guided
Caliphs of Islam. May God Most High be pleased with them and grant
to them His eternal reward.
With the death of Ali, the first
and most notable phase in the history of Muslim peoples came to
an end. All through this period it had been the Book of God and
the practices of His Messenger - that is, the Qur'an and the Sunnah
- which had guided the leaders and the led, set the standards of
their moral conduct and inspired their actions. It was the time
when the ruler and the ruled, the rich and the poor, the powerful
and the weak, were uniformly subject to the Divine Law. It was an
epoch of freedom and equality, of God-consciousness and humility,
of social justice which recognized no privileges, and of an impartial
law which accepted no pressure groups or vested interests.
After Ali, Muawiya assumed the caliphate
and thereafter the caliphate became hereditary, passing from one
king to another.