- African independence in 1960
- Freedom from empire: an assessment of postcolonial Africa
- Reflections from 1960
- Key players in 1960
- Table of African independence dates
- Colonial presence in Africa: a brief background
Though intimately related to the extraordinary crescendo of political events, other significant developments of a nonpolitical nature took place in Africa in 1960. No startling economic progress was made toward meeting the “revolution of rising expectations.” Africa would continue to hope to secure financial and technical aid from abroad. Symbolic steps, however, indicating that stagnation had not set in, included the May 17 opening of the Kariba dam hydroelectric project on the Zambesi river, the start of work on the second Aswan dam on the Nile (with $280,000,000 of Soviet aid) and the continued solicitation of funds for the Volta river development in Ghana. Pres. Kwame Nkrumah’s denial of reports of prospective nationalization of industry in Ghana, though himself professedly a socialist, touched on a matter of pervasive importance for the underdeveloped countries. What economic concessions would be offered to induce outside capital to come to Africa? One readily apparent factor helping the continent was the attempt to curry favour from the Africans by both the eastern and western blocs.
In the face of economic and political pressures, the Africans turned toward the United Nations for solutions to their dilemmas. The UN department of economic and social affairs had, earlier in the year, pointed to the difficult problems involved in building sound and self-sustaining economies in Africa. Concluding his five-week tour through Africa in February, Hammarskjöld called for the channeling of aid to Africa through the United Nations and in April called for more aid. Perhaps for reasons such as these, the new African members, after their admission to the United Nations, supported the secretary-general in the Sept. 21 dispute over his Congo policy.
The degree of co-operation among African states during the year was to be found more in the diplomatic and cultural fields than in the economic area. Conferences and meetings of African governments and peoples took place at Tunis (Jan. 25), Accra (April 7), Conakry (April 11–15), Addis Ababa (June 10) and Léopoldville (Aug. 25–31). Aside from the condemnation of imperialism, racialism and the French atomic tests in the Sahara, these meetings were notable less for their achievements than for the continued contact with each other they afforded African leaders. Yet differing political orientations, language barriers, separate histories, tribal and religious obstacles and personal ambition acted to hamper co-operation. The first west African Olympic-style games, however, opened in Nigeria on Oct. 3, and leaders such as Mboya and Nyerere did come out in support of the federation of the British areas of Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda and Zanzibar. It appeared, though, that for the near future the forces of inertia would operate to keep changes within a nation-state framework.
On the whole a vast new interest in the African panorama, almost commensurate with the epic changes, was displayed by news media, individuals, organizations and governments in 1960. Both the Soviet Union and the United States vied with each other in the race to win the good will of the potential African intellectual elite. The U.S.S.R. announced plans for a new university to provide free education in Moscow for several thousand foreign students. The United States and private groups set up scholarships and transportation assistance for several hundred African students that would bring the number of African students in the United States to about 2,000. Africans showed themselves most anxious to lower the 80% illiteracy rate and leap into the 20th century through the magic of education. Nigeria, for one, planned to open the University of Nigeria on Oct. 12. As to the character of the education, it is worthy of mention that the sultan of Morocco in October stepped into the controversy over the type of education to be taught at the 1,100-year-old Karaouine university to support the new curriculum.
Future U.S. interest in Africa was indicated by Pres.-elect John F. Kennedy who made one of his first major appointments that of Gov. G. Mennen Williams of Michigan as assistant secretary of state for African affairs.
Clearly, the tempo of change in numerous directions on the African continent has been greatly accelerated. It was an exciting year. Problems abounded—but so, too, did Africa’s eventual good prospects. . . .
Key players in 1960
The following list includes selected biographies of individuals who were champions of African nationalism or were involved in the governing of the newly independent African countries in 1960.
- Ahmadou Ahidjo (Cameroon)
- Nnamdi Azikiwe (Nigeria)
- Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (Nigeria)
- Barthélemy Boganda (Central African Republic)
- David Dacko (Central African Republic)
- Moktar Ould Daddah (Mauritania)
- Hamani Diori (Niger)
- Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Côte d’Ivoire)
- Joseph Kasavubu (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
- Modibo Keita (Mali)
- Patrice Lumumba (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
- Léon M’ba (Gabon)
- Mobutu Sese Seko(Democratic Republic of the Congo)
- Sylvanus Olympio (Togo)
- Léopold Senghor (Senegal)
- Moise Tshombe (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
Table of African independence dates
This table provides a list of African countries and the year in which they achieved independence.
|country||year of formation
|Central African Republic||1960|
|Congo, Democratic Republic of the||1960|
|Congo, Republic of the||1960|
|Sao Tome and Principe||1975|
|1The kingdom of Burundi came under colonial rule in the late 19th century. Independence was regained in 1962.
2French Cameroun gained independence in 1960 and was joined by the southern portion of British Cameroons in 1961; the northern portion of British Cameroons joined with Nigeria in 1961.
3Egypt is one of the world’s oldest continuous civilizations, spanning many millennia. Throughout its vast and varied history, it has enjoyed independence as well as been subject to other ruling powers. The kingdom of Egypt was declared in 1922, although it was still subject to the influence of Great Britain, its former colonial administrator. It was replaced by the modern-day republic in 1952.
4One of the world’s oldest countries, Ethiopia maintained its independence until the 20th century, when it was briefly occupied by Italy (1936–41).
5Liberia is the only black state in Africa that was never subjected to colonial rule. It was declared an independent republic in 1847.
6The Kingdom of Morocco regained independence from France in 1956; Spanish possessions were returned to Morocco in 1956, 1958, and 1969.
7The kingdom of Rwanda came under colonial rule in the late 19th century. Independence was regained in 1962.
8The Union of South Africa, a dominion within the British Commonwealth that was ruled by the country’s white minority, was formed in 1910. Black majority rule was achieved in a new, nonracial government in 1994.
9Tanzania was formed as a sovereign state in 1964 through the union of the theretofore separate states of Tanganyika (independent in 1961) and Zanzibar (independent in 1963).
10Western Sahara is claimed by neighbouring Morocco, although that claim is not internationally recognized. In 1976 the Polisario Front (a group of the Western Sahara’s indigenous inhabitants fighting for independence) declared a government-in-exile of what it called the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic.
11Zimbabwe’s white minority government unilaterally declared independence from Great Britain in 1965, but Great Britain did not accept it. Independence was granted with black majority rule in 1980.
Colonial presence in Africa: a brief background
The following selection is taken from Britannica’s article on Western colonialism.