) or immunogen
is a substance that prompts the generation of antibodies
and can cause an immune response. The word originated from the notion that they can stimulate antibody generation. We now know that the immune system does not consist of only antibodies
. The modern definition encompasses all substances that can be recognized by the adaptive immune system
. In the strict sense, immunogens are those substances that elicit a response from the immune system, whereas antigens are defined as substances that bind to specific antibodies. Not all antigens produce an immunogenic response, but all immunogens are antigens (Immunobiology
, Janeway and Travers, 1994).
Antigens are usually proteins or polysaccharides. This includes parts (coats, capsules, cell walls, flagella, fimbrae, and toxins) of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Lipids and nucleic acids are antigenic only when combined with proteins and polysaccharides. Non-microbial exogenous (non-self) antigens can include pollen, egg white, and proteins from transplanted tissues and organs or on the surface of transfused blood cells.
- Tolerogen - A substance that invokes a specific immune non-responsiveness due to its molecular form. If its molecular form is changed, a tolerogen can become an immunogen.
- Allergen - An allergen is a substance that causes the allergic reaction. The (detrimental) reaction may result after exposure via ingestion, inhalation, injection, or contact with skin.
Cells present their antigens to the immune system via a histocompatibility molecule. Depending on the antigen presented and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, several types of immune cells can become activated.
Origin of antigens
Antigens can be classified in order of their origins.
Exogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example by inhalation
, or injection
. By endocytosis
, these antigens are taken into the antigen-presenting cells
(APCs) and processed into fragments. APCs then present the fragments to T helper cells
) by the use of class II histocompatibility
molecules on their surface. Some T cells are specific for the peptide:MHC complex. They become activated and start to secrete cytokines
. Cytokines are substances that can activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes
(CTL), antibody-secreting B cells
, and other particles.
Endogenous antigens are antigens that have been generated within the cell, as a result of normal cell metabolism
, or because of viral or intracellular bacterial infection
. The fragments are then presented on the cell surface in the complex with MHC class I
molecules. If activated cytotoxic CD8+ T cells
recognize them, the T cells begin to secrete various toxins
that cause the lysis
of the infected cell. In order to keep the cytotoxic cells from killing cells just for presenting self-proteins, self-reactive T cells are deleted from the repertoire as a result of tolerance
(also known as negative selection
). They include xenogenic
is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins (and sometimes DNA or RNA) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific autoimmune disease
. These antigens should, under normal conditions, not be the target of the immune system, but, due to mainly genetic and environmental factors, the normal immunological tolerance
for such an antigen has been lost in these patients.
are those antigens that are presented by MHC I
or MHC II
molecules on the surface of tumor cells
. These antigens can sometimes be presented by tumor cells and never by the normal ones. In this case, they are called tumor-specific antigens (TSAs)
and, in general, result from a tumor-specific mutation. More common are antigens that are presented by tumor cells and normal cells, and they are called tumor-associated antigens (TAAs)
. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes
that recognize these antigens may be able to destroy the tumor cells before they proliferate or metastasize
Tumor antigens can also be on the surface of the tumor in the form of, for example, a mutated receptor, in which case they will be recognized by B cells.
A native antigen
is an antigen that is not yet processed by an APC to smaller parts. T cells
cannot bind native antigens, but require that they be processed by APCs, whereas B cells
can be activated by native ones.