The corpus of
encompasses a rich tradition of poetry
as well as scientific
texts. Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the forms of hymns
. Spoken Sanskrit has been revived in some villages with traditional institutions, and there are attempts at further popularisation.
The Sanskrit verbal adjective
may be translated as "put together, constructed, well or completely formed; refined, adorned, highly elaborated". It is derived from the root saṃ-skar-
"to put together, compose, arrange, prepare"
(cf. Norwegian 'sammen skjær', Afrikaans 'saamskaar').
As a term for "refined or elaborated speech" the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit, in the
and in the Mahabharata
. The language referred to as
"the cultured language" has by definition always been a "sacred" and "sophisticated" language, used for religious and learned discourse in ancient India, and contrasted with the languages spoken by the people, prākṛta-
"natural, artless, normal, ordinary".
The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as
, with the language of the
being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, its oldest core dating back to as early as early 2nd millennium BCE.
This qualifies Rigvedic Sanskrit as one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Iranian language
, and one of the earliest members of the
, which includes English and most European languages.
Sanskrit, as defined by
, evolved out of the earlier "Vedic" form. The present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced as early as 2nd millennium BCE (for
Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit
and Classical or "Pāṇinian" Sanskrit as separate 'dialects'. Though they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology
. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the
, a large collection of hymns, incantations (Samhitas
), theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the
. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the
Samhita to be the earliest, composed by many authors over several centuries of oral tradition. The end of the Vedic period is marked by the composition of the Upanishads
, which form the concluding part of the Vedic corpus in the traditional view; however the early Sutras are Vedic, too, both in language and content.
For nearly 2,000 years, a cultural order existed that exerted influence across
, and to a certain extent,
A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of the Hindu Epics
. The deviations from
in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or "innovations" and not because they are pre-Paninean.
Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa
(आर्ष), meaning 'of the ṛṣis
', the traditional title for the ancient authors. In some contexts, there are also more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper.
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit
is a literary language heavily influenced by Middle Indic
, based on early Buddhist
texts which subsequently assimilated to the Classical Sanskrit standard in varying degrees.
There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit:
(Northwestern, also called Northern or Western), madhyadeśī
(lit., middle country), pūrvi
(Eastern) and dakṣiṇī
(Southern, arose in the Classical period). The predecessors of the first three dialects are even attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas
, of which the first one was regarded as the purest (Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa, 7.6).
In the 2001
census of India
, 14,135 people reported Sanskrit as their
Since the 1990s, movements to spread spoken Sanskrit have been increasing. Organisations like Samskrita Bharati
conduct Speak Sanskrit workshops to popularise the language.
Indian newspapers have published reports about several villages, where, as a result of recent revival attempts, large parts of the population, including children, are learning Sanskrit and are even using it to some extent in everyday communication:
Shimoga district, Karnataka
Rajgarh district, Madhya Pradesh
- Ganoda, Banswara district, Rajasthan
Kendujhar district, Odisha
More than 3000 Sanskrit works have been composed in the period after India's independence (since 1947).
Furthermore, much of this work is judged as being of high quality, both in comparison to classical Sanskrit literature, and to modern literature in other Indian languages.
Over 90 weeklies, fortnightlies and quarterlies are published in Sanskrit.
, a daily newspaper in Sanskrit has been published out of
in India since the year 1970, while Sanskrit Vartman Patram and Vishwasya Vrittantam were started in Gujarat over the last five years.
Since 1974, there has been a short daily news broadcast on state-run All India Radio
These broadcasts are also made available on the internet on AIR's website.
Sanskrit news is broadcast on TV and on the internet as part of the DD National channel at 6:55 AM IST.
In Nepal, India and
, Sanskrit phrases are widely used as
for various national, educational and social organisations:
In order to explain the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages, many scholars have proposed
asserting that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in what is now India and Pakistan from the north-west some time during the early second millennium BCE. Evidence for such a theory includes the close relationship of the Indo-Iranian tongues with the Baltic and Slavic languages, vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European Uralic languages
, and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna.
The earliest attested Sanskrit texts are
texts of the Rigveda
, which date to the mid-to-late second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive, if they ever existed. However, scholars are confident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they were ceremonial literature whose correct pronunciation was considered crucial to its religious efficacy.
From the Rigveda until the time of
(4th century BCE) the development of the early Vedic language may be observed in other Vedic texts: the Samaveda
. During this time, the prestige of the language, its use for sacred purposes, and the importance attached to its correct
all served as powerful conservative forces resisting the normal processes of linguistic change.
However, there is a clear, five-level linguistic development of Vedic from the Rigveda to the language of the Upanishads and the earliest Sutras (such as Baudhayana
The oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar is
("Eight-Chapter Grammar"). It is essentially a prescriptive grammar, i.e., an authority that defines Sanskrit, although it contains descriptive parts, mostly to account for some Vedic forms that had become rare in Pāṇini
's time. Classical Sanskrit became fixed with the grammar of
(roughly 500 BCE), and remains in use as a learned language until the present day.
The term "Sanskrit" was not thought of as a specific language set apart from other languages, but rather as a particularly refined or perfected manner of speaking. Knowledge of Sanskrit was a marker of
and educational attainment in ancient India and the language was taught mainly to members of the higher castes, through close analysis of Sanskrit grammarians
such as Pāṇini
, who exhorted that one should speak proper Sanskrit at all times, and at least during ritual.
Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside the Prakrits
(vernaculars), also called Middle Indic
dialects, and eventually into the contemporary modern Indo-Aryan languages
. However, linguistic change led to an eventual loss of
Many of the
suggest that it coexisted along with Prakrits, spoken by multilingual speakers with more extensive education. Sanskrit speakers were also almost always multilingual. In the medieval era, Sanskrit continued to be spoken and written, particularly by learned Brahmins
for scholarly communication. This was a thin layer of Indian society, but covered a wide geography. Centres like Varanasi, Paithan, Pune, and Kanchipuram had a strong presence of teaching and debating institutions, and high classical Sanskrit was maintained until British times.
There are a number of
studies of spoken Sanskrit which strongly suggest that oral use of Sanskrit is limited, with its development having ceased sometime in the past.
argues that "most observers would agree that, in some crucial way, Sanskrit is dead
Pollock has further argued that, while Sanskrit continued to be used in literary cultures in India, Sanskrit was not used to express changing forms of subjectivity and sociality embodied and conceptualised in the modern age.:416
Instead, it was reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity in Sanskrit was restricted to hymns and verses.:398
A notable exception are the military references of Nīlakaṇṭha Caturdhara
's 17th-century commentary on the
Pollock's characterisation has been contested by other authors like Hanneder and Hatcher, who point out that modern works continue to be produced in Sanskrit.
Hanneder has also argued that modern works in Sanskrit are either ignored or their "modernity" contested.
When the British imposed a Western-style education system in India in the nineteenth century, knowledge of Sanskrit and ancient literature continued to flourish as the study of Sanskrit changed from a more traditional style into a form of analytical and comparative scholarship mirroring that of Europe.
is an organisation working for Sanskrit revival. The "All-India Sanskrit Festival" (since 2002) holds composition contests. The 1991 Indian census
reported 49,736 fluent speakers of Sanskrit. Sanskrit learning programmes also feature on the list of most of the AIR broadcasting centres. The Mattur
village in central Karnataka
claims to have native speakers of Sanskrit among its population. Inhabitants of all castes learn Sanskrit starting in childhood and converse in the language. Even the local Muslims speak and converse in Sanskrit. Historically, the village was given by king Krishnadevaraya
of the Vijayanagara Empire
to Vedic scholars and their families. People in his kingdom spoke Kannada and Telugu. Another effort concentrates on the preservation of oral transmission
of the Vedas
is one such organisation based out of Hyderabad
that has been digitising the Vedas through voice recording the recitations of Vedic Pandits.
(Central Board of Secondary Education) of India along with several other state education boards have made Sanskrit a third or second language choice (though it is an option for the school to adopt it or not, the other choice being the state's own official language) in the schools it governs. In such schools, learning Sanskrit is an option for grades 5 to 8 (Classes V to VIII). This is true of most schools affiliated to the ICSE
board too, especially in those states where the official language is Hindi
. Sanskrit is also taught in traditional
St James Junior School in London
, England offers Sanskrit as part of the curriculum.
In the United States, since September 2009, high school students have been able to receive credits as Independent Study or towards Foreign Language requirements by studying Sanskrit, as part of the "SAFL: Samskritam as a Foreign Language" program coordinated by Samskrita Bharati
A list of Sanskrit universities is given below in chronological order:
Many universities throughout the world train and employ Sanskrit scholars – either within a separate Sanskrit department, or within a broader focus area – for example, in South Asian studies/linguistics departments in universities across the West. For example, Delhi university has about 400 Sanskrit students, out of which about half are reading it in post-graduation programmes.
According to Thomas R. Trautmann, after the 18th-century wave of "Indomania", i.e. enthusiasm for Indian culture and for Sanskrit, as exemplified in the positions of Orientalist scholars such as Sir William Jones, a certain hostility to Sanskrit and to Indian culture in general began to assert itself in Britain in the early 19th century. The hostility was manifest by a neglect of Sanskrit in British academia, as compared to other European countries, and was part of a general push in favor of the idea that India should be culturally, religiously and linguistically assimilated to Britain as far as possible. Traufmann considers that this British hostility to Sanskrit had two separate and logically opposite sources: one was "British
", which he calls essentially a developmentalist, progressivist, liberal, and non-racial-essentialist critique of Hindu civilisation as an aid for the improvement of India along European lines. The other was
, which was a theorisation of the English "common-sense view
" that Indians constituted a "separate, inferior and unimprovable race".
This article is about how Sanskrit came to be written using various systems. For details of Sanskrit as written using specifically Devanāgari, see
Sanskrit was spoken in an oral society, and the oral tradition was maintained through the development of early classical
Writing was not introduced to India until after Sanskrit had evolved into the Prakrits; when it was written, the choice of writing system was influenced by the regional scripts of the scribes. Therefore, Sanskrit has no native script of its own.
As such, virtually all the major writing systems of South Asia have been used for the production of Sanskrit manuscripts. Since the late 19th century, Devanagari
has become the de facto
standard writing system for Sanskrit publication, quite possibly because of the European practice of printing Sanskritic texts in this script. Devanāgari is written from left to right, does not have distinct letter cases, and is recognisable by a distinctive horizontal line running along the tops of the letters that links them together.
The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit date to the 1st century BCE. They are in the
script, which was originally used for Prakrit
, not Sanskrit. It has been described as a "paradox" that the first evidence of written Sanskrit occurs centuries later than that of the Prakrit languages which are its linguistic descendants.
In northern India, there are Brahmi
inscriptions dating from the 3rd century BCE onwards, the oldest appearing on the famous Prakrit pillar inscriptions
of king Ashoka
. The earliest South Indian inscriptions in Tamil Brahmi, written in early Tamil, belong to the same period. When Sanskrit was written down, it was first used for texts of an administrative, literary or scientific nature. The sacred texts were preserved orally, and were set down in writing, "reluctantly" (according to one commentator), and at a comparatively late date.
Brahmi evolved into a multiplicity of scripts of the
, many of which were used to write Sanskrit. Roughly contemporary with the Brahmi, the
script was used in the northwest of the subcontinent. Later (around the 4th to 8th centuries CE) the Gupta script
, derived from Brahmi, became prevalent. From ca. the 8th century, the
evolved out of the Gupta script. The latter was displaced in its turn by Devanagari
from ca. the 11/12th century, with intermediary stages such as the Siddham
script. In Eastern India, the Bengali
script and, later, the Oriya script
, were used. In the south where
predominate, scripts used for Sanskrit include Kannada
Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has been
using the Latin alphabet
. The system most commonly used today is the IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration
), which has been the academic standard since 1888/1912.
-based transliteration schemes have evolved due to difficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These include
, a transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues. With the wide availability of
-aware web browsers, IAST has become common online. It is also possible to type using an
and transliterate to Devanagari using software like Mac OS X's international support. European scholars in the 19th century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction of whole texts and lengthy excerpts. However, references to individual words and names in texts composed in European Languages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. From the 20th century onwards, due to production costs, textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in Romanised
Sanskrit grammatical tradition (vyākaraṇa
, one of the six
disciplines) began in late Vedic India
and culminated in the Aṣṭādhyāyī
, which consists of 3990 sutras (ca.
5th century BCE). About a century after Pāṇini
(around 400 BCE) Kātyāyana composed Vārtikas on Pāṇinian sũtras. Patañjali
, who lived three centuries after Pāṇini, wrote the
, the "Great Commentary" on the
and Vārtikas. Because of these three ancient Sanskrit grammarians
this grammar is called Trimuni Vyākarana
. To understand the meaning of sutras Jayaditya and Vāmana wrote the commentary named Kāsikā 600 CE. Pāṇinian grammar is based on 14
sutras (aphorisms). Here whole Mātrika (alphabet
) is abbreviated. This abbreviation is called Pratyāhara.
Sanskrit has also influenced
languages through the spread of Buddhist
texts in translation. Buddhism was spread to China by Mahayana
missionaries sent by Emperor Ashoka mostly through translations of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit
. Many terms were transliterated directly and got added to the Chinese vocabulary. Chinese words like 剎那
'instantaneous period') were borrowed from Sanskrit. Many Sanskrit texts survive only in Tibetan collection of commentaries to the Buddhist teachings Tanjur
Other Austronesian languages, such as
, also derive
much of their vocabulary
from Sanskrit, albeit to a lesser extent, with a large proportion of words being derived from Arabic
such as Tagalog
have many Sanskrit loanwords
, although more are derived from
. A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word
, or spoken language, which is used to mean language in general, for example
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