- The evaluation of reasoning
- Applications of logic
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Applied logic, the study of the practical art of right reasoning. This study takes different forms depending on the type of reasoning involved and on what the criteria of right reasoning are taken to be. The reasoning in question may turn on the principles of logic alone, or it may also involve nonlogical concepts. The study of the applications of logic thus has two parts—dealing on the one hand with general questions regarding the evaluation of reasoning and on the other hand with different particular applications and the problems that arise in them. Among the nonlogical concepts involved in reasoning are epistemic notions such as “knows that …,” “believes that …,” and “remembers that …” and normative (deontic) notions such as “it is obligatory that …,” “it is permitted that …,” and “it is prohibited that ….” Their logical behaviour is therefore a part of the subject matter of applied logic. Furthermore, right reasoning itself may be understood in a broad sense to comprehend not only deductive reasoning but also inductive reasoning and interrogative reasoning (the reasoning involved in seeking knowledge through questioning).
The evaluation of reasoning
Reasoning can be evaluated with respect to either correctness or efficiency. Rules governing correctness are called definitory rules, while those governing efficiency are sometimes called strategic rules. Violations of either kind of rule result in what are called fallacies.
Logical rules of inference are usually understood as definitory rules. Rules of inference do not state what inferences reasoners should draw in a given situation; they are instead permissive, in the sense that they show what inferences a reasoner can draw without committing a fallacy. Hence, following such rules guarantees only the correctness of a chain of reasoning, not its efficiency. In order to study good reasoning from the perspective of efficiency or success, strategic rules of reasoning must be considered. Strategies in general are studied systematically in the mathematical theory of games, which is therefore a useful tool in the evaluation of reasoning. Unlike typical definitory rules, which deal with individual steps one by one, the strategic evaluation of reasoning deals with sequences of steps and ultimately with entire chains of reasoning.
Strategic rules should not be confused with heuristic rules. Although rules of both kinds deal with principles of good reasoning, heuristic rules tend to be merely suggestive rather than precise. In contrast, strategic rules can be as exact as definitory rules.
The formal study of fallacies was established by Aristotle and is one of the oldest branches of logic. Many of the fallacies that Aristotle identified are still recognized in introductory textbooks on logic and reasoning.
Deductive logic is the study of the structure of deductively valid arguments—i.e., those whose structure is such that the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion. Because the rules of inference of deductive logic are definitory, there cannot exist a theory of deductive fallacies that is independent of the study of these rules. A theory of deductive fallacies, therefore, is limited to examining common violations of inference rules and the sources of their superficial plausibility.
Fallacies that exemplify invalid inference patterns are traditionally called formal fallacies. Among the best known are denying the antecedent (“If A, then B; not-A; therefore, not-B”) and affirming the consequent (“If A, then B; B; therefore, A”). The invalid nature of these fallacies is illustrated in the following examples:
If Othello is a bachelor, then he is male; Othello is not a bachelor; therefore, Othello is not male.
If Moby Dick is a fish, then he is an animal; Moby Dick is an animal; therefore, Moby Dick is a fish.
One main source of temptations to commit a fallacy is a misleading or misunderstood linguistic form of a purported inference; mistakes due to this kind of temptation are known as verbal fallacies. Aristotle recognized six verbal fallacies: those due to equivocation, amphiboly, combination or division of words, accent, and form of expression. Whereas equivocation involves the ambiguity of a single word, amphiboly consists of the ambiguity of a complex expression (e.g., “I shot an elephant in my pajamas”). A typical fallacy due to the combination or division of words is an ambiguity of scope. Thus, “He can walk even when he is sitting” can mean either “He can walk while he is sitting” or “While he is sitting, he has (retains) the capacity to walk.” Another manifestation of the same mistake is a confusion between the distributive and the collective senses of an expression, as for example in “Jack and Jim can lift the table.”
Fallacies of accent, according to Aristotle, occur when the accent makes a difference in the force of a word. By a fallacy due to the form of an expression (or the “figure of speech”), Aristotle apparently meant mistakes concerning a linguistic form. An example might be to take “inflammable” to mean “not flammable,” in analogy with “insecure” or “infrequent.”
The most common characteristic of verbal fallacies is a discrepancy between the syntactic and the semantic form of a sentence, or between its structure and its meaning. A general theory of linguistic fallacies must therefore address the question of whether all semantic distinctions can be recognized on the basis of the syntactic form of linguistic expressions.