Types of poison
In regard to poisoning, chemicals can be divided into three broad groups: agricultural and industrial chemicals, drugs and health care products, and biological poisons—i.e., plant and animal sources. These three groups, along with a fourth category, radiation, are discussed below.
Agricultural and industrial chemicals
The majority of agricultural chemicals are pesticides, which include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, fumigants, and rodenticides.
The four main classes of insecticides are organophosphates, carbamates, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and insecticides derived from plants (botanical). Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides act by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme that degrades acetylcholine (the messenger of the parasympathetic nervous system). As a result, acetylcholine levels remain high, exaggerating the normal functions of the parasympathetic system (Table 1). Effects such as salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, twitching of the skeletal muscles, and in severe poisoning, death from respiratory depression occur.
|chemicals||toxicity, symptoms, and signs|
|organophosphates (e.g., malathion, parathion)||parasympathetic excess|
|carbamates (e.g., carbaryl, carbofuran)||parasympathetic excess|
|DDT, methoxychlor||CNS stimulation, convulsions, nausea, vomiting|
|chlordecone (Kepone)||nausea, vomiting|
|insecticides from plants|
|pyrethrins||allergic contact dermatitis, asthma, CNS stimulation|
|rotenone||irritation of skin, eyes, and lung; mild CNS stimulation; breast tumours in rats|
|2,4-dichlorophenoxy-acetic acid (2,4-D)||nausea, vomiting, fatigue, diarrhea, muscle ache and twitches, peripheral nerve damage, convulsion, memory loss, colour visual disorder|
|2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy-acetic acid (2,4,5-T)||irritation to skin, eyes, and nose; teratogenic in animals|
|paraquat||lung fibrosis; kidney and liver damage|
|diquat||nosebleed, cough, fever, jaundice|
|others (e.g., diuron, monuron, atrazine, simazine, chlorpropham, alachlor)||irritation to the skin, nose, and throat|
|pentachlorophenol||irritating to eyes, nose, and throat; anorexia; weakness; shortness of breath; chest pain; carcinogenic in animals|
|creosote||extremely irritating to skin, eyes, nose, and throat|
|ferbam, thiram||moderate irritation to eyes, nose, and throat; mild skin irritation; allergic contact dermatitis|
|1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP)||mildly irritating to skin, eyes, and nose; testicular damage; carcinogenic in animals|
|ethylene dibromide||severe irritation to skin, eyes, and throat; headache; anorexia; CNS depression; carcinogenic in animals|
|methyl bromide||headache, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, emotional disturbances, tremors, convulsion, coma, lung irritation, bronchial inflammation|
|strychnine||restlessness, increased audio and visual sensitivities, muscular stiffness in face and legs followed by convulsion|
|thallium||hair loss; skin eruptions; intestinal bleeding; anorexia; nausea; vomiting; injuries of peripheral nerves, liver, and kidney|
|Plant growth regulators|
|daminozide (Alar)||carcinogenic in animals|
Chlorinated hydrocarbons used as insecticides, such as chlorophenothane (DDT), are larger molecules than the chlorinated hydrocarbons used as organic solvents, such as chloroform. The former stimulate the central nervous system; the latter depress it. The major toxic effect produced by these insecticides is convulsions (Table 1). The use of DDT is banned in many countries because of its environmental effects and because it may cause cancer in humans. DDT is a highly fat-soluble chemical that accumulates in fish, and, when birds eat such fish, the chemical also accumulates in their fat tissues. The DDT in the birds results in fragile eggs, which are prone to breakage. This will ultimately decrease the population of fish-eating birds.
In general, insecticides derived from plants are low in toxicity. Pyrethrins are widely used insecticides in the home. They have a rapid “knockdown” for insects and have a low potential for producing toxicity in humans. The major toxicity of pyrethrins is allergy. Rotenone is a mild irritant and animal carcinogen (Table 1).
Herbicides are chemicals used to kill plants. Their potential to produce toxicity in humans is rather low. High doses of 2,4-D, however, can produce muscular and neurological symptoms (Table 1). The systemic toxicity of 2,4,5-T is lower than that of 2,4-D, but 2,4,5-T is more irritating.
During the Vietnam War, Agent Orange, a mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, was used as a defoliant. The 2,4,5-T used in the Agent Orange was contaminated with tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD), or dioxin. Although TCDD is extremely toxic to some animals, it is less so to others, but it does cause birth defects and cancer in laboratory animals. The major toxicity of TCDD in humans is in the production of chloracne, a condition characterized by acne that appears between the eyes and the ears. In more severe form, acne may be found on the face, trunk, and buttocks. (Significant adverse health effects in the soldiers exposed to low amounts of TCDD in Vietnam have not been clearly established.) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) also produce chloracne by damaging the sebaceous glands in skin.
Warfarin was originally developed as a drug to treat thromboembolism, a disease caused by blood clots, since it inhibits the synthesis of a factor essential for the clotting of blood. The inhibition of blood clotting by warfarin can lead to internal bleeding (Table 1), however. Because of its ability to induce internal bleeding, warfarin is also used as a rodenticide.
Plant growth regulator
Daminozide, also known as Alar, is a plant growth regulator used to improve the appearance and shelf life of apples. Because of its carcinogenicity in animals (Table 1), concerns have been raised that daminozide may produce tumours in children who consume apples. As a result, the use of daminozide has greatly decreased.
The term industrial chemicals is used to refer to chemicals used neither in agriculture nor as drugs. Therefore, it includes chemicals used in industry, as well as chemicals found in or near households. Poisoning with industrial chemicals occurs most often by either percutaneous or inhalation routes.
Depression of the central nervous system is a common effect of most hydrocarbons (Table 2). Examples of common hydrocarbons include gasoline, toluene, and heptanes; n-hexane; and benzene. The hydrocarbons are lipid-soluble and dissolve in the membrane of nerve cells in the brain, perturbing their function. Depression, such as drowsiness, occurs as a result. In addition, many of the hydrocarbons sensitize the heart to fibrillation by epinephrine. The hydrocarbon n-hexane also causes damage to peripheral nerves. Benzene is toxic to organs like the bone marrow that form blood cells and can lead to the production of leukemia.
|chemicals||toxicity, symptoms, and signs|
|gasoline, toluene, xylene, hexanes, n-hexane, heptanes||CNS depression, headache, nausea, vomiting, irritation of skin and eyes|
|chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, methylene chloride, and others||CNS depression, sensitization of heart muscle; many cause liver and kidney injuries; some cause liver tumours in animals|
|methanol||headache; nausea; vomiting; diarrhea; abdominal pain; restlessness; cold, clammy limbs; shortness of breath; CNS depression; blurred vision; blindness|
|ethanol||irritation of stomach, CNS depression, fetal alcohol syndrome; brain damage, amnesia, sleep disturbances, heart damage, fatty liver, liver cirrhosis|
|formaldehyde||irritation of eyes, nose, and throat; headache; bronchitis; lung edema; asthma and allergic contact dermatitis; carcinogenic in animals|
|various||irritation of eyes, nose, and throat|
|various||irritation of eyes, nose, and throat; pulmonary edema|
|Aromatic amines and nitro compounds|
|various||CNS depression, methemoglobinemia; some are carcinogenic|
|Anhydrides and isocyanates|
|various||irritation of skin, eyes, nose, and throat; asthma; allergic contact dermatitis|
|Miscellaneous organic compounds|
|polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), polybrominated biphenyls (PBB), tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD)||chloracne, liver injury; carcinogenic and teratogenic in animals|
|lead compounds||colic; abnormal red blood cells; injuries to kidney, peripheral nerves (weakness and palsy), and brain (irritability, restlessness, excitement, confusion, delirium, vomiting, visual disturbance); lead acetate is carcinogenic in rats|
|arsenic compounds||edema, heart damage, low blood pressure, vomiting of blood, bloody stool, skin lesions, injuries of nervous systems, liver and kidney damage, cancers of skin and lung|
|Corrosives (acids and alkalies)|
|various||corrosion of skin, mouth, throat, stomach, and intestine on contact; irritation of eyes, nose, and throat if inhaled|
|Miscellaneous inorganic compounds|
|hydrogen cyanide, potassium cyanide, sodium cyanide||drowsiness, dizziness, headache, rapid breathing, palpitations, weakness, muscle twitches, cyanosis, coma, convulsion|
|hydrogen sulfide, chlorine||irritating to skin, eyes, nose, throat, and lung; chest pain; lung edema; shortness of breath; pneumonia; headache; dizziness; nausea; vomiting|
|sodium fluoride, stannous fluoride||irritations of mouth, stomach, and intestine; CNS depression; tooth mottling; increased bone density|
|bleaches (sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite)||irritation or corrosion of esophagus, stomach, and intestine; irritation of eyes and skin; acidic condition in the body; rapid breathing; aspiration-induced lung inflammation|
|silica dust, asbestos fibres||lung fibrosis; shortness of breath; cough; chest pain; cancers of the lung, linings of the lung and abdomen, and intestine (asbestos)|
|sulfur dioxide||irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and lung; nausea and vomiting; shortness of breath; alterations in sense of smell and taste; unconsciousness|
|nitrogen oxides, ozone||irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and lung (dry throat with ozone); shortness of breath; bluish pale appearance; rapid breathing and pulse; pneumonia; nitrogen oxides also cause the destruction of red blood cells and cause liver and kidney damage|
|carbon monoxide||weakness, confusion, headache, nausea and vomiting, dizziness, drowsiness, jaw stiffness, shortness of breath, seizures, coma, lung edema, pneumonia|
Most alcohols produce depression of the central nervous system, but some alcohols cause certain unique toxicities. Examples of common alcohols include methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, ethylene glycol, and phenol. Methanol can produce blindness after being metabolized to formic acid, which also leads to acidosis, characterized by an acidic pH in the body (lower than the normal pH of 7.4). Ethanol produces birth defects in both laboratory animals and humans. It also produces fetal alcohol syndrome, a major cause of mental retardation, in children of mothers who drink excessively while pregnant. Ethanol is toxic to the liver in chronic alcoholism and is a major cause of cirrhosis, a condition characterized by hardening of the liver. Phenol differs from other alcohols in causing damage to multiple organs. Finally, ethylene glycol, which is widely used as an antifreeze agent in automobiles, causes renal damage when it is biotransformed to oxalic acid, which crystallizes in the renal tubule (Table 2).
The major toxicity produced by aldehydes, such as formaldehyde, is irritation (Table 2). Formaldehyde can also cause allergic reactions in people who have been sensitized to it. Examples of other common aldehydes include acetaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, and acrolein. The toxicities of ketones and esters are similar to those of aldehydes in causing mainly irritation of the respiratory tract if inhaled and the gastrointestinal tract if ingested. (Table 2).
Aromatic amines and nitro compounds, for example, aniline, toluidine, and nitrobenzene, produce depression of the central nervous system and methemoglobinemia (Table 2). Methemoglobinemia is a condition in which the ferrous ion in hemoglobin, which is responsible for carrying oxygen, is oxidized to the ferric form. Oxidized hemoglobin, called methemoglobin, can still carry oxygen, but it does not readily release oxygen to tissues, so that the body, in effect, has a lack of oxygen. Some aromatic amines and nitro groups are known to cause bladder cancer.
Because both anhydrides and isocyanates are highly reactive, they are extremely irritating to the upper respiratory tract (Table 2). If the airborne concentration is sufficiently high, the upper respiratory tract cannot remove all of the isocyanate or anhydride molecules, and pulmonary injury (mainly edema) results. Such a situation occurred in Bhopal, India, in the mid-1980s, when methyl isocyanate from a chemical plant was inadvertently released into the air, killing as many as 2,500 people and injuring thousands of others. Because they are chemically reactive, anhydrides and isocyanates also tend to cause hypersensitivity responses, such as asthma and allergic contact dermatitis. Common examples of anhydrides include maleic anhydride and phthalic anhydride; examples of isocyanates include methyl isocyanate and toluene diisocyanate.
Miscellaneous organic chemicals include such compounds as phosgene, carbon disulfide, and the halogenated aromatic compounds. Phosgene gained notoriety when it was used in chemical warfare in World War I. Like anhydrides and isocyanates, phosgene is highly reactive. Instead of reacting with the mucosal linings of the upper respiratory tract, however, it tends to react with the lungs, causing edema. As a result, the lungs’ defenses against bacteria are weakened, and pneumonia may occur. Halogenated aromatic compounds with more than one ring, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin TCDD, can produce a number of toxic effects in laboratory animals, including cancer, birth defects, liver injury, porphyria, and immunotoxicity (Table 2). The PCBs have been extensively used as a cooling agent in electrical transformers. It appears that humans are more resistant to the toxicity of these compounds than are some species of laboratory animals, and the main toxic effect observed in humans is chloracne, similar to juvenile acne.
Examples of metal compounds toxic to humans include manganese, lead, cadmium, nickel, and arsenic compounds, beryllium oxide, and the elemental vapours, inorganic salts, and organic compounds of mercury. Chronic manganese exposure can damage the brain, resulting in a condition with symptoms similar to Parkinson’s disease, such as slurred speech, masklike face, and rigidity. Mercury can also damage the brain, leading to behavioral changes; however, mercury is also toxic to the peripheral nervous system, causing sensory and motor symptoms. In addition, mercury is toxic to the kidney. Methyl mercury is especially toxic to the developing brain of a fetus.
Lead is probably the most ubiquitous metal poison. Used for numerous purposes, before World War II it was a major constituent in paint, and it has been used in gasoline. Like mercury, lead is toxic to the nervous system and kidney (Table 2), but its toxicity is age-dependent. In children, the blood–brain barrier is not fully developed, and more lead enters the brain. The extent of damage depends on the exposure; at lower levels of exposure, small decreases in intelligence and behavioral changes may result, whereas high levels result in severe brain damage and death. In adults, lead tends to cause paralysis or weakness, indicative of peripheral nervous system damage.
In acute cadmium poisoning by ingestion, irritation of the gastrointestinal tract is the major toxicity, causing nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. With chronic exposure by inhalation, however, kidneys and lungs are the target organs. Arsenic compounds damage many organs. They cause skin lesions, decrease in heart contractility, blood vessel damage, and injuries of the nervous system, kidney, and liver. Arsenic compounds also produce skin and lung tumours in humans. Certain nickel and hexavalent chromium compounds, as well as beryllium oxide, are toxic to the lungs and can cause lung cancer.
Acids, such as sulfuric and hydrochloric acids, and strongly alkaline compounds, such as sodium hydroxide, and potassium hydroxide are corrosive to tissues on contact and can cause severe tissue injuries (Table 2). Sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, and potassium hydroxide are active ingredients in drain cleaners, the ingestion of which can cause severe chemical burns of the mouth and esophagus.
Hypochlorites are often used as bleaching agents. In low concentrations, as in household bleaches, hypochlorites have little toxicity but may be irritating to tissues; they can, however, be corrosive at high concentrations. Cyanide ions poison the oxidative metabolic machinery of cells so that insufficient energy is generated. The effect is as if there were a lack of oxygen for the cells, even though there is plenty of oxygen in the blood. Hydrogen sulfide and chlorine are highly irritating to the respiratory tract, with pulmonary edema the major toxic effect. Chronic fluoride poisoning is called fluorosis, which is characterized by tooth mottling and increased bone density. These changes, especially of the bone, are related to a change in body calcium caused by fluoride. Silica and asbestos remain in the lungs for long periods of time, and both produce lung fibrosis (Table 2). In addition, asbestos is a well-known human carcinogen.
General air pollutants
Sulfur dioxide, an acidic pollutant, irritates the respiratory tract. It causes violent coughing when it irritates the throat, and may result in shortness of breath, lung edema, and pneumonia when it reaches the lungs.
Both ozone and nitrogen oxides are oxidizing pollutants. Like sulfur dioxide, they cause respiratory irritation; ozone and nitrogen oxides, however, tend to be more irritating to the lung than to the upper respiratory tract.
Carbon monoxide, an asphyxiating pollutant, binds to hemoglobin more strongly than oxygen does. Such binding produces a hemoglobin molecule that cannot carry its normal load of four oxygen molecules. In addition, once carbon monoxide is bound, the hemoglobin molecule does not as readily release to the tissues the oxygen molecules already bound to it. Therefore, tissues lack oxygen, resulting in many toxic effects. Because the brain is especially sensitive to the lack of oxygen, most of the symptoms are neurological. Lack of oxygen is termed asphyxiation, and thus carbon monoxide is an asphyxiant.
Drugs and health care products
Poisoning with drugs predominantly involves oral exposures. With drugs, therefore, irritation of the respiratory tract is rare, but anorexia, nausea, and vomiting resulting from gastrointestinal irritation are common.
Painkillers (analgesics) are the most commonly used drugs and account for many poisoning cases. Examples include aspirin and acetaminophen. Aspirin interferes with the oxidative burning of fuel by cells. To get energy, the cells switch to a less efficient way of burning fuel that does not use oxygen but generates a lot of heat. Increased perspiration develops to counteract a rise in body temperature, leading to dehydration and thirst. Aspirin also alters the pH in the body, affecting the central nervous system (Table 3). The major toxicity of acetaminophen is liver damage.
|Drugs and health care products|
|drugs||toxicity, symptoms, and signs|
|aspirin, sodium salicylate||increased perspiration, respiration increased initially, dehydration, acidity in the body, hypoglycemia, CNS depression, respiration decreased, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, coma, convulsion, lung edema, death|
|acetaminophen||skin rash, decreases in blood cells, liver and kidney injuries, hypoglycemia, coma|
|morphine||nausea, vomiting, pinpoint pupil, depressed respiration, delusions, confusion, muscle flaccidity, constipation, coma, death|
|Tranquilizers and sleeping pills|
|benzodiazepines||increased salivation, muscular incoordination, slurred speech, weakness, seizures, irritability, loss of appetite|
|barbiturates||slowed respiration, CNS depression, depressed heartbeat, low blood pressure, shock, kidney failure, lung edema, pneumonia, muscular incoordination, slurred speech, pinpoint pupil, coma, death|
|various||sympathetic blockade reflex increase in heart rate, parasympathetic blockade, tremors, rigidity, restlessness, jaundice|
|various||nervousness, dizziness, tremor, confusion, increased blood pressure and heart rate|
|various||drowsiness, dizziness, ear ringing, blurred vision, lack of coordination, headache, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, heartburn, dry mouth and throat, cough, palpitations, decrease in blood pressure, chest tightness, tingling of the hands|
|various||irritation of esophagus and stomach when ingested|
|Vitamins and iron pills|
|vitamin A||fatigue, dizziness, severe headache, vomiting, edema, dry and peeling skin, enlarged liver and spleen, teratogenic, red skin eruptions, abnormal hair growth|
|iron||nausea, upper abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloody or brown vomit, dehydration, intestinal bleeding, liver damage, drowsiness, acidic condition in the body, rapid breathing, shock|
|tricyclic antidepressants||parasympathetic blockade, CNS damage, cardiovascular system damage|
|lithium salts||thyroid enlargement, edema, increased urination, abnormal heart rhythm, vomiting, diarrhea, tremor, muscle flaccidity, seizures, coma|
|Drugs of abuse|
|various||primarily CNS effects|
|digitalis (e.g., digoxin, digitoxin)||gastrointestinal irritation, abdominal discomfort, salivation, fatigue, facial pain, visual disturbances, confusion, delirium, hallucinations|
|beta blockers (e.g., propanolol, metoprolol)||constriction of bronchi, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, headache, insomnia, dizziness, abnormal heart rhythm|
|verapamil||headache, dizziness, gastrointestinal symptoms, edema, rash, abnormal heart rhythm, lowered blood pressure|
|procainamide, quinidine||anorexia, nausea, vomiting, confusion, delirium, psychotic behaviour, abnormal heart rhythm, lowered blood pressure|
|Therapeutics for asthma|
The major toxicity from narcotic analgesics, like morphine, is depression of the central nervous system, especially the brain centre controlling respiration. The cause of death in morphine overdoses is usually respiratory failure. Nausea is caused by morphine’s stimulation of the chemoreceptor trigger zone in the brain, and constipation is caused by morphine’s depression of muscular activity in the intestine (Table 3).
Tranquilizers and sleeping pills
Benzodiazepines, such as diazepam, clonazepam, and chloridazepoxide, have a wide margin of safety when used at prescribed doses. Their major toxic effect is depression of the central nervous system, which results in muscular incoordination and slurred speech (Table 3). For sleeping pills containing barbiturates, chloral hydrate, paraldehyde, and meprobamate, however, the margin of safety is much narrower, and the major toxicity is severe depression of the central nervous system, leading to respiratory and cardiovascular failure (Table 3).
Like benzodiazepines, antipsychotic drugs such as chlorpromazine, perphenazine, and haloperidol have a relatively large therapeutic index, rarely causing fatalities. They occasionally may block the action of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems and thus produce such undesired effects as dry mouth and blurred vision from the former and a drop in blood pressure upon standing in the latter (Table 3).
Nasal decongestants, antihistamines, and cough medicine, which are found in over-the-counter preparations for treating the symptoms of colds, have a low potential to produce toxicity. Nasal decongestants, such as ephedrine, mimic the action of epinephrine by stimulating the sympathetic nervous system, and consequently, an overdose of ephedrine produces symptoms related to stimulation of the sympathetic and central nervous systems (Table 3). Depression of the central nervous system and parasympathetic blockade are two common toxicities of antihistamines such as diphenhydramine (Table 3). Depression of the central nervous system is also the major toxicity of dextromethorphan and codeine, both used to suppress coughing.
Most antiseptics (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, benzoyl peroxide, resorcinol, benzalkonium chloride, parabens, and cetylpyridinium chloride) produce gastrointestinal irritation if ingested (Table 3). Benzoyl peroxide and parabens applied to the skin may be toxic. Among the most toxic antiseptics are hexachlorophene, benzalkonium, and cetylpyridinium chloride, any of which can cause injuries to internal organs. Systemic toxicity (double vision, drowsiness, tremor, seizures, and death) with hexachlorophene is more likely to occur in babies because the relatively thin stratum corneum of their skin is highly permeable.
Vitamins and iron pills
Deficiencies as well as excesses of vitamins are harmful. Excessive vitamin A (retinol, or retinoic acid), known as hypervitaminosis A, can result in skin lesions, edema, and liver damage. Overconsumption by Alaskan natives of polar bear liver, a rich source of vitamin A, has produced acute toxicities, characterized by irresistible sleepiness and severe headaches. Chronic poisoning with vitamin A can cause neurological symptoms, including pain, anorexia, fatigue, and irritability (Table 3).
Excess vitamin C can lead to kidney stones. Apart from irritation of the skin and respiratory tract, the most severe toxicity of vitamin K excess is the increased destruction of red blood cells, which leads to anemia and the accumulation of bilirubin, one of the products of hemoglobin degradation (Table 3). Excess bilirubin can result in brain damage in newborns, a condition known as kernicterus. Because the blood–brain barrier is not well developed in newborns, bilirubin enters and damages the brain. Due to the blood–brain barrier, kernicterus is not seen in adults.
Iron, a metal that is necessary for normal health, can also cause poisoning. The toxicity of iron is a result of its corrosive action on the stomach and intestine when present in high concentrations. As a result, intestinal bleeding occurs, which can lead to the development of shock.
Among tricyclic antidepressants, amitriptyline and imipramine account for most of the fatal cases of poisoning. These drugs have a number of effects, including blockage of the parasympathetic system and damage to the central nervous system, the latter producing symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, lowered body temperature, seizures, and respiratory depression (Table 3). Death is usually caused by damage to the heart. Lithium salts, used to treat manic depression, have a relatively low therapeutic index.
Drugs of abuse
Mind-altering drugs commonly abused include amphetamines, cocaine, phencyclidine, heroin, and methaqualone. These drugs are primarily toxic to the central nervous system; amphetamine and cocaine cause stimulation of the system (hallucinations and delirium), and heroin causes the depression of the system (depressed respiration and coma). In contrast, phencyclidine and methaqualone are biphasic, producing first depression (drowsiness) and then stimulation of the central nervous system (delirium and seizures). Amphetamines also affect the gastrointestinal tract (anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea) and stimulate the cardiovascular system (increased blood pressure and heart rate, palpitations, and abnormal heart rhythm). In addition to hallucinations and delirium, cocaine causes euphoria, sexual arousal, confusion, and sympathetic stimulation. Phencyclidine is also known to cause aggression and psychotic behaviour, while methaqualone produces excessive dreaming and amnesia.
Digitalis (e.g., digoxin) is a class of drugs used for congestive heart failure, with a very narrow margin of safety. Digitalis overdose usually begins with gastrointestinal symptoms, such as anorexia, nausea, and vomiting, followed by sensory symptoms, such as pain and visual disturbances (Table 3). There are also effects on the central nervous system, characterized by delirium and hallucinations.
The major toxicities of beta blockers (e.g, propranolol and metoprolol) result from the blockage of sympathetic effects on the tracheobronchial tree (lung) and heart. Sympathetic stimulation relaxes smooth muscles in the tracheobronchial wall and makes the heart beat faster and more forcefully. Blockage produced by propranolol or metoprolol can cause bronchoconstriction and heart failure (Table 3).
Drugs for treating asthma, such as theophylline and aminophylline, are structurally similar to caffeine. Like caffeine, which is a stimulant, theophylline and aminophylline also stimulate the central nervous system. Therefore, excitement, delirium, rapid breathing, increased heart rate, and seizures occur with an overdose. With excessive stimulation of the heart, palpitations and irregular heart rhythm (arrhythmia) can result, leading to sudden death.Curtis D. Klaassen King Lit Wong
Poisons of biological origin
Biotoxins can be conveniently grouped into three major categories: (1) microbial toxins, poisons produced by bacteria, blue-green algae, dinoflagellates, golden-brown algae, etc., (2) phytotoxins, poisons produced by plants, and (3) zootoxins, poisons produced by animals. The geographic distribution of poisonous organisms varies greatly; poison-producing microorganisms tend to be ubiquitous in their distribution. Poisonous plants and animals are found in greatest abundance and varieties in warm-temperate and tropical regions. Relatively few toxic organisms of any kind are found in polar latitudes.
Knowledge of the evolutionary significance and development of most biotoxins is largely speculative and poorly understood. In some instances they may have developed during the evolution of certain animal species as part of the food procurement mechanism (e.g., in snakes; cnidarians, jellyfishes, and their relatives; mollusks, octopuses, and others; and spiders). Biotoxins may also function as defensive mechanisms, as in some snakes, fishes, arthropods (e.g., insects, millipedes), and others. The defense may be quite complex—as in the protection of territorial rights for reproductive purposes—and inhibitory or antibiotic substances may be produced that result in the exclusion of competitive animal or plant species. Certain marine organisms and terrestrial plants may release into the water, air, or soil inhibitory substances that discourage the growth of other organisms; well-known examples include the production of antibiotic substances by microorganisms. Similar chemical-warfare mechanisms are used in battles for territorial rights among the inhabitants of a coral reef, a field, or a forest. Thus biotoxins play important roles in the regulation of natural populations. Of increasing interest has been the discovery that certain substances, which may be toxic to one group of organisms, may serve a vital function in the life processes of the source organism.
Importance to humans
Venom-producing animals and stinging and dermatogenic (i.e., skin-poisoning) plants capable of inflicting pain and sometimes death by means of parenteral contact (i.e., by bringing poisons into the body other than through the digestive tract) constitute environmental hazards. Biotoxic agents may produce their injurious effects by becoming involved in the food supply; ingestion of a poisonous microbial organism, plant, or marine animal or one of their toxic by-products may cause intoxication. An example is that of the shore fishes of many tropical islands; otherwise valuable food fishes are frequently contaminated by a poison called ciguatoxin. The poison, a potent neurotoxin (nerve poison), is accidentally ingested by the fishes in their food; such fish can no longer be used for either human or animal consumption.
Some of the effects produced by biotoxins on humans are of an acute nature, and the injuries they cause are readily discernible. The effects of some of the mycotoxins (poisons produced by fungi) and poisons produced by plants, however, are long-term and chronic; they result in the development of cancerous growths and other chronic degenerative changes that are sometimes difficult to detect.
Microbial poisons are produced by the Monera (bacteria and blue-green algae) and Protista (algae, protozoa, and others), and the Fungi. Various classifications have been proposed for the microbial poisons, but none is entirely satisfactory. The problems encountered when dealing with these organisms result from a lack of precise knowledge concerning their biological nature and their phylogenetic relationships; in addition, their poisons show great diversity and chemical complexity. The following outline, however, is useful in dealing with this subject.
The prefixes “exo-” and “endo-” are retained in classifying the bacterial toxins mainly for historical reasons rather than because they are found either outside or inside the bacterial cell. The main differences in these toxins lie in their chemical structure.
Poisonous proteins from bacteria are sometimes referred to as bacterial exotoxins. The exotoxins are generally produced by gram-positive organisms (i.e., bacteria that react in certain ways to the staining procedure known as Gram staining); at least two bacteria, Shigella dysenteriae and Vibrio cholerae, that produce exotoxins are gram-negative, however. The exotoxins usually do not contain any nonprotein substances, and most are antigenic; i.e., they stimulate the formation of antibodies. The exotoxins may appear in the culture medium in which the bacteria are growing during the declining phases of growth; in some cases they are released at the time of normal destruction of the cells after death (autolysis). The exotoxins are less stable to heat than are the endotoxins, and they may be detoxified by agents that do not affect endotoxins. They are more toxic than endotoxins, and each exotoxin exerts specific effects which are collectively known as pharmacological properties. Exotoxins are neutralized by homologous antibodies—i.e., the active agents in blood serum produced by a process involving the bacteria against which the serum is to be used.
Endotoxins are antigens composed of complexes of proteins, polysaccharides (large molecules built up of numerous sugars), and lipids (fats). The protein part determines the antigenicity, or quality of being reacted against as a foreign substance in a living organism. The polysaccharide part determines the immunological specificity, or limitations on the types of antibodies that can react with the endotoxin molecule and neutralize it (the immunological reaction). Some of the lipids possibly determine the toxicity. Endotoxins are derived from the bacterial cell wall and, when cells are grown in culture, are released only on autolysis. Endotoxins are not neutralized by homologous antibodies and are relatively stable to heat; all of them have the same pharmacological properties.
The Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, are among the most primitive and widely distributed of all organisms. They have extreme temperature tolerances. Some strains of a species are toxic; other strains of the same species are not. Water blooms of blue-green algae have been responsible for the death of fishes, waterfowl, cattle, horses, swine, and other animals. Blue-green algae have also been implicated as causes of human intoxications.
Fungi are plantlike members of the kingdom Fungi (Mycota) that do not contain chlorophyll. A significant number are known to produce poisons of various types. Toxic fungi can be roughly divided into two main categories on the basis of their size: the smaller microfungi and the larger mushrooms. The toxic microfungi are members of one of two classes: Ascomycetes, or the sac fungi, and the Deuteromycetes, or the imperfect fungi (i.e., fungi in which no sexual reproductive stages are known). The large toxic mushrooms, or toadstools, are mostly members of the class Basidiomycetes, although some Ascomycetes, such as the poisonous false morel (Gyromitra esculenta), may attain a size as large as some of the mushrooms.
The ability of certain fungi, such as ergot (Claviceps purpurea) and some mushrooms, to produce intoxication has long been known. During the 19th century it was recognized that molds are responsible for such diseases as yellow-rice toxicoses in Japan and alimentary toxic aleukia in Russia. The eruption of so-called turkey X disease in England in 1960 and the resulting discovery of the substance known as aflatoxin (see Table 4) stimulated study of the subject of mycotoxicology. Because mycotoxins have now been recognized as potential cancer-producing agents (carcinogens) that can become involved in man’s food supply, they have become important in the study of environmental carcinogenesis.
|Representative toxic microfungi|
|Claviceps purpurea (ergot)||ergotoxine, a complex of toxic alkaloids, ergocryptine, ergocornine, ergocristine, and others||causes poisoning in animals and humans; produces vomiting, abdominal pain, numbness, nervous disorders, convulsions, gangrene, and abortion|
|Stachybotrys chartarum||stachybotryotoxin||causes a toxicosis in animals and humans; produces stomatitis (inflammatory disease of the mouth), rhinitis (inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose), conjunctivitis (inflammation of the inner surface of the eyelid), failure of blood to clot, blood abnormalities, neurological disturbances, and death|
|Aspergillus flavus and other species, Penicillium species||aflatoxin complex (16 or more known toxins)||causes toxicosis in animals and possibly humans; toxins damage liver and kidneys; aflatoxin is one of the most potent liver-cancer-producing agents known|
|Fusarium sporotrichioides and other Fusarium species||fusariogenin, epicladosporic acid, fagicladosporic acid||causes alimentary toxic aleukia in animals and humans; produces burning sensation of the mouth, tongue, throat, and stomach; causes nausea, vomiting, headache, cold extremities, hemorrhagic spots, convulsions, anemia, gangrene, death|
|Cladosporium epiphyllum and other species of Cladosporium||same as Fusarium species|
|Pithomyces chartarum (Sporidesmium bakeri)||sporidesmin||causes facial eczema (an eruptive severe rash) in cattle; produces sensitization of the skin to sunlight, resulting in scab formation and sores; there may also be severe liver damage|
|Fusarium species, Rhizopus species, Aspergillus species, Penicillium islandicum, and others||luteoskyrin, islanditoxin, citrinin, citreoviridin, and others; a large complex of poisons is involved||causes moldy or yellowed rice, which is toxic to animals and humans; the effects in humans have not been well defined; may cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, prostration, liver damage, and death; the effects vary greatly because of the various poisons involved|
Poisonous mushrooms, or toadstools as they are commonly called, are the widely distributed members of the class Basidiomycetes, although only a few are known to be poisonous when eaten (see Table 5); some of the poisons, however, are deadly. Most deaths attributed to mushroom poisoning result from eating members of the genus Amanita. Wild mushrooms should be eaten only if they have been accurately identified by an experienced person; the safest procedure is to eat only cultivated species. The problem of toxicity in mushrooms is complex; no single rule or test method exists by which the toxicity of a mushroom can be determined. The most poisonous species closely resemble some of the most prized edible species; in addition, toxicity within a given wild species may vary from one set of ecological conditions or from one geographical locality to the next. Moreover, although some mushrooms that are poisonous when fresh are edible when cooked, dried, salted, or preserved in some other way, others remain poisonous in spite of all preparation procedures. It has also been observed that some people may become poisoned by eating mushrooms that apparently do not affect others. As with microfungi, the mushroom poisons vary in their chemical and biological properties from species to species.
|Representative poisonous mushrooms|
|toxin||type of poisoning|
|lorchel, or false morel (Gyromitra esculenta)||gyromitrin||toxicity to people is variable; causes severe liver damage accompanied by nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, jaundice, enlarged and tender liver, coma, convulsions; fatality rate about 15 percent|
|fly mushroom, or fly agaric (Amanita muscaria)||muscarine||symptoms develop rapidly and are severe, consisting of severe gastrointestinal disturbances, delirium, hallucinations, convulsions; rarely causes death|
|death cap (Amanita phalloides)||amanitine, phalloidine||symptoms develop slowly, about 6–15 hours after eating: extreme abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, excessive thirst, anuria (absence or defective excretion of urine), prostration, weakness, jaundice, cyanosis, convulsion, death; fatality rate about 50 percent; no known antidote but some treatment available|
|jack-o'-lantern fungus (Omphalotus olearius)||muscarine||causes gastrointestinal upset, not fatal|
|inky cap (Coprinus atramentarius)||unknown||some people experience a peculiar type of intoxication after eating this mushroom and then drinking an alcoholic beverage: giddiness, gastrointestinal upset, prostration, and tachycardia (rapid heart action); the alcohol is believed to increase the solubility and absorption of the poison|
|Entoloma sinuatum||unknown||causes gastrointestinal upset, usually not fatal|
|Inocybe patouillardii||muscarine||symptoms are similar to A. muscaria poisoning|
|Lepiota morgani||unknown||causes gastrointestinal upset; fatalities have been reported|
|Mexican hallucinogenic mushroom (Psilocybe mexicana)||psilocybin, psilocin||causes euphoria, loss of sense of distance and size, and hallucinations|
The dinoflagellates, important producers of the primary food supply of the sea, are microscopic one-celled organisms that are dependent upon various inorganic nutrients in the water and upon radiant energy for photosynthesis, the process by which they produce their own food supplies. Although dinoflagellates inhabit both marine waters and freshwaters, most species are marine. Dinoflagellates are most often found in cool or temperate waters. During periods of planktonic blooms (times of high concentrations of microscopic organisms in the water) dinoflagellates multiply in large numbers. These planktonic blooms, sometimes referred to as red tide because they discolour the water, are often associated with weather disturbances that may bring about changes in water masses or upwellings. During periods of bloom large numbers of toxic dinoflagellates may be ingested by shellfish; the poisons accumulate in their digestive glands. Animals and humans may in turn be poisoned by eating poisoned shellfish. Certain species of dinoflagellates are capable of producing some of the most toxic substances known. The two species of dinoflagellates most commonly involved in human intoxications have been Gonyaulax catenella along the Pacific coast of North America and G. tamarensis along the eastern coast of North America. Intoxications from these organisms are known as paralytic shellfish poisoning. The symptoms, which begin with a tingling or burning sensation, then numbness of the lips, gums, tongue, and face, gradually spread. Gastrointestinal upset may be present. Other symptoms include weakness, joint aches, and muscular paralysis; death may result. There is no specific treatment or antidote. The poison, variously called paralytic shellfish poison, mussel poison, and saxitoxin, is a complex nonprotein nitrogen-containing compound. Paralytic shellfish poisoning is best avoided by following local public-health quarantine regulations.
Respiratory irritation may result from the inhalation of toxic products in the windblown spray from red-tide areas containing the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve, which is found in the Gulf of Mexico and Florida; the nature of the poison is unknown. Deaths of large numbers of brackish-water pond fishes because of Prymnesium parvum have been reported in Israel; the poison is known as prymnesin.
Plant poisons (phytotoxins)
The study of plant poisons is known as phytotoxicology. Most of the poisonous higher plants are angiosperms, or flowering plants, but only a small percentage are recognized as poisonous. Several systems have been devised for the classification of poisonous plants, none of which is completely satisfactory. Poisonous plants may be classified according to the chemical nature of their toxic constituents, their phylogenetic relationship, or their botanical characteristics. The following classification, which is based on their toxic effects, has been found to be useful: (1) plants that are poisonous to eat, (2) plants that are poisonous upon contact, (3) plants that produce photosensitization, and (4) plants that produce airborne allergies (see Table 6).
|Representative poisonous plants|
|name and distribution||toxic principle||toxic effects and comments|
|Plants poisonous to eat|
|rosary pea, or jequirity bean (Abrus precatorius); tropical regions||abrin (N-methyltryptophan) and abric acid||onset of symptoms may be delayed several hours to two days: vomiting, diarrhea, acute gastroenteritis, chills, convulsions, death from heart failure; one seed chewed may be fatal to a child|
|aconite, or monkshood (Aconitum napellus); North America, Europe||aconite and a complex of other alkaloids||tingling, burning sensation in tongue, throat, skin; restlessness, respiratory distress, muscular uncoordination, vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions, possible death; an extremely poisonous plant|
|corn cockle (Agrostemma githago); North America, Europe||githagin, agrostemmic acid (saponins)||dizziness, diarrhea, respiratory distress, vomiting, headache, sharp pains in spine, coma, death; frequent ingestion of small amounts results in chronic githagism (a disease, similar to lathyrism, that results in pain, burning and prickling sensations in lower extremities, and increasing paralysis); milled seeds may be found in wheat flour|
|locoweed (Astragalus species); Northern Hemisphere||locoine||dullness, weakness, irregular behaviour, impaired vision, edema of eyelids, loss of muscular control, loss of appetite, emaciation, starvation, death in sheep, horses, and cattle|
|belladonna (Atropa belladonna); United States, Europe, Asia||hyoscyamine, atropine, hyoscine, and a complex of other alkaloids||dryness of the skin, mouth, throat; difficulty in swallowing, flushing of the face, cyanosis (a bluish discoloration of skin due to insufficient oxygen), nausea, vomiting, slurred speech, coma, death; children and animals frequently poisoned by eating fruit|
|akee (Blighia sapida)||hypoglycin A, B||sudden vomiting, drowsiness, muscular and nervous exhaustion, prostration, coma, death|
|rape (Brassica napus)||glycosides (isothiocyanates)||pulmonary emphysema, respiratory distress, anemia, constipation, irritability, blindness in cattle|
|marijuana (Cannabis sativa); United States, Mexico, tropical America||cannabinol, canabidiol, and related compounds||exaltation, inebriety, confusion, followed by central nervous system depression; prolonged, frequent use may produce dullness or mania; ingestion in large quantities or injection of the purified extract may produce death by cardiac depression|
|water hemlock (Cicuta maculata); northern temperate regions||cicutoxin||abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, hypersalivation, convulsions, death; among the most poisonous plants|
|poison hemlock (Conium maculatum); temperate United States, South America, northern Africa, Asia||coniine, conhydrine, N-methyleoniine, coniceine, and other alkaloids||muscular weakness, paralysis of extremities, blindness, respiratory paralysis, death; responsible for many human fatalities; leaves most toxic when plant is flowering|
|purging croton (Croton tiglium); Asia, Pacific Islands, Africa||croton, croton resin, ricinine||vomiting, violent purging, collapse, death; croton oil is also a skin irritant, causing reddening, swelling, and pustules|
|daphne (Daphne mezereum); temperate regions||glycoside involving aglycone dihydroxycoumarin||vomiting, burning sensation of the mouth, ulceration of the oral mucosa, diarrhea, stupor, weakness, convulsions, and death|
|jimsonweed or thornapple (Datura stramonium); temperate and tropical regions||hyoscine, hyoscyamine, atropine||headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, thirst, dry and burning sensation in skin, mental confusion, mania, loss of memory, convulsions, death; children are often poisoned by eating seeds or sucking flowers|
|larkspur (Delphinium species); northern temperate regions||delphinine, delphinoidine, delphisine, and other alkaloids||burning and inflammation of mouth, nausea, vomiting, respiratory distress, itching, cyanosis; one of the greatest causes of death in grazing livestock|
|dumbcane (Dieffenbachia seguine); widely cultivated in temperate regions, tropical regions||protoanemonine, calcium oxalate||irritation and burning of the mouth, tongue, and lips; hypersalivation, swelling of the tongue, difficulty in swallowing and breathing|
|foxglove (Digitalis purpurea); Europe, North America||glycosides, digitoxigenin, and others||loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, slow pulse and irregular heartbeat, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache, fatigue, drowsiness, convulsions, death|
|wild yam (Dioscorea hispida); southern Asia, Pacific Islands||dioscorine||discomfort, then burning of the throat, giddiness, vomiting of blood, respiratory distress, drowsiness, exhaustion, paralysis of the nervous system, death; raw tubers are a frequent cause of death in the Philippines|
|Huanuco cocaine (Erythroxylon coca); tropics of both hemispheres||cocaine and other alkaloids||central nervous system stimulation followed by depression, numbness of tongue, paralysis of respiratory centres, cyanosis, respiratory distress, death; leaves are commonly chewed by Indians of Peru and Bolivia as a stimulant|
|manchineel (Hippomane mancinella); Florida, Central America, South America, West Indies||physostigmine or a similar alkaloid plus a sapogenin||fruit causes gastroenteritis, which may be fatal, and causes ulceration of intestinal tract; sap causes burning of skin, swelling and hemorrhage of the eyes; sap is used as an arrow poison|
|black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger); North America, Europe, Asia, Oceania||hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine, and other alkaloids||similar to belladonna poisoning caused by Atropa belladonna; children are poisoned by eating seeds and pods|
|Barbados nut (Jatropha curcas); tropics||curcin||burning of the throat, bloating, dizziness, vomiting, diarrhea, drowsiness, dysuria, leg cramps, violent purgative action; may be fatal to children|
|mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia); North America||andromedotoxin||hypersalivation, tears, impaired vision, tingling of skin, dizziness, vomiting, muscular paralysis, convulsions, coma, death; children are poisoned by eating leaves|
|grass pea (Lathyrus sativus); North America, Europe, northern Africa, Asia||beta-aminopropionitrile||back pain, weakness in legs, paralysis; has caused death in children|
|cassava (Manihot esculenta); tropics||cyanophoric glycosides||nausea, respiratory distress, twitching, staggering, convulsions, coma, death|
|chinaberry (Melia azedarach); North America, southern Africa, Asia||azadarin||stomatitis with violent and bloody vomiting, paralysis|
|opium poppy (Papaver somniferum); Europe, Asia, tropics||morphine, codeine, thebaine, papavarine, narcotine||central nervous system depression, pinpoint pupils, depressed respiration, cyanosis, coma, death|
|pokeberry (Phytolacca americana); North America, Europe, southern Africa||phytolaccine||burning, bitterness in mouth, vomiting, purging, spasms, convulsions, death|
|castor bean (Ricinus communis); United States, tropics||ricin, a toxalbumin||burning of mouth, throat, and stomach, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, dulled vision, convulsions, respiratory distress, paralysis, death; one to three seeds may be fatal to children|
|black nightshade (Solanum nigrum); North America, Europe||solanine, a glycoalkaloid||nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, trembling, paralysis, coma, death|
|Plants poisonous by contact|
|euphorbia, spurge (Euphorbia species); worldwide||a complex of substances including alkaloids, glycosides, and others||eye irritation, blindness, blistering of the skin, swelling around the mouth, burning of the mouth, unconsciousness, death; milky sap is used as an arrow poison|
|spurge nettle (Jatropha urens); North America, Europe, Asia||toxin unknown||contact produces instant, intense stinging and itching due to an irritating substance injected into the skin by the stinging hairs; results in a skin eruption of minute red papular (small conical elevations of the skin) rash, which lasts about 30 minutes; a dull purplish discoloration of the skin may remain for several weeks|
|shiney-leaf stinging tree, tree nettle (Dendrocnide photiniphylla); Australia||5-hydroxytryptamine (and other toxic substances?)||contact with the stinging hairs of this plant produces intense, rapidly spreading pain, reddened rash, and later a severe skin eruption; severe stings may result in intense, unbearable pain; fatalities have been reported; dried leaves may cause intense sneezing|
|poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum); West Indies, Florida||similar to poison ivy||contact with any part of the tree, especially sap, turns the skin black, causes a rash, blisters, etc.; smoke from a burning tree is very irritating, causing illness and temporary blindness|
|strophanthus (Strophanthus species); Florida, tropical America, Africa||an alkaloid, trigonelline, and a large number of cardiac glycosides and aglycones||vomiting, slow and irregular pulse, blurred vision, delirium, circulatory failure, death; used as an arrow poison|
|curare (Strychnos toxifera); Central America and northern South America||toxiferines, caracurines, and other alkaloids||haziness of vision, relaxation of facial muscles, inability to raise head, loss of muscle control of arms, legs, and respiratory muscles, death; used as a poison for arrows and for blowgun darts|
|poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans, also called Rhus toxicodendron); North America||urushiol||skin irritation, swelling, blistering, itching; may be fatal to young children; smoke from burning plant is toxic|
|Plants that produce photosensitization|
|buckwheat (Fagopyrum sagittatum); North America, Europe||fagopyrin, a naphthodianthrone derivative||ingestion of the leaves by animals causes liver dysfunction, thereby resulting in deposition of a photosensitizing pigment in the skin; sunlight then causes redness of the skin, nervousness, swelling of the eyelids, convulsions, and prostration in farm animals|
|St. Johnswort (Hypericum perforatum); North America, Europe||hypericin, a naphthodianthrone derivative||similar to buckwheat|
|Plants that produce airborne allergies|
|box elder (Acer negundo); Northern Hemisphere||oleoresin and a water-soluble antigen||hay fever (respiratory allergy), may also cause an eczematous dermatitis of the exposed parts of the body|
Plant poisons, or phytotoxins, comprise a vast range of biologically active chemical substances, such as alkaloids, polypeptides, amines, glycosides, oxalates, resins, toxalbumins, and a large group of miscellaneous compounds whose chemical structure has not yet been determined. Alkaloids, most of which are found in plants, are characterized by the presence of nitrogen and their ability to combine with acids to form salts. They are usually bitter in taste. It has been estimated that about 10 percent of the plant species contain some type of alkaloid. Only a few of the 5,000 alkaloids characterized thus far do not produce any biological activity; most cause a strong physiological reaction when administered to an animal. Amines are organic compounds containing nitrogen. A polypeptide is a string of three or more amino acids. A few polypeptides and amines are toxic to animals. Some glycosides, which are compounds that yield one or more sugars and one or more other compounds—aglycones (nonsugars)—when hydrolyzed (chemically degraded by the introduction of water molecules between adjacent subunits), are extremely toxic to animals. Toxicity resides in the aglycone component or a part of it. Oxalates are salts of oxalic acid, which under natural conditions is not toxic but becomes so because of the oxalate ion. Resins, a heterogeneous assemblage of complex compounds, differ widely in chemical properties but have certain similar physical properties. Some resins are physiologically very active, causing irritation to nervous and muscle tissue. Toxalbumins are highly toxic protein molecules that are produced by only a small number of plants. Ricin, a toxalbumin from the castor bean (Ricinus communis), is one of the most toxic substances known.
Under certain ecological conditions plants may become poisonous as a result of the accumulation of toxic inorganic minerals such as copper, lead, cadmium, fluorine, manganese, nitrates, or selenium. Photosensitization, an unusual toxic reaction resulting from the ingestion of certain plants, may be of two types. The toxic substance may be obtained directly from the plant, which thereupon acts on the skin (primary photosensitivity), or the toxicity may result from liver damage caused by the metabolism of a toxic plant and failure of the breakdown products to be eliminated by the liver (hepatic photosensitivity). In either case the animal reacts by becoming restless; in addition, the skin reddens, and a severe sloughing of the skin develops. Death seldom occurs.
A large number of poisonous plants occur throughout the world; a few representative species and their poisons are listed in Table 6.
Animal poisons (zootoxins)
Poisonous animals are widely distributed throughout the animal kingdom; the only major group that seems to be exempt is the birds.
Zootoxins can be divided into several categories: (1) oral poisons—those that are poisonous when eaten; (2) parenteral poisons, or venoms—those that are produced by a specialized poison gland and administered by means of a venom apparatus; and (3) crinotoxins—those that are produced by a specialized poison gland but are merely released into the environment, usually by means of a pore.
Oral zootoxins (see Table 7) are generally thought to be small molecules; most venoms (Table 8) are believed to be large molecules, usually a protein or a substance in close association with one. Venoms, which are produced by specialized poison glands, are injected by means of a mechanical device that is able to penetrate the flesh of the victim. Little is known about the biological or chemical properties of most crinotoxins (Table 9). The term poisonous may be used in the generic sense to refer to all three categories of zootoxins.
|Representative crinotoxic animals*|
|*Animals in which poison glands are present and poison is released into the environment through a pore.|
**Poisonous amphibians are sometimes referred to as "venomous," but they do not possess a true venom apparatus. They possess only poison glands.
|name and distribution||toxic principle||toxic effects and comments|
|red moss (Microciona prolifera); eastern United States coastal waters||unknown||contact with the sponge produces a chemical irritation of the skin, redness, stiffness of the finger joints, swelling, blisters, and pustules|
|flatworm (Leptoplana tremellaris); European coastal waters||unknown||poison is produced by epidermal skin glands; no human intoxications recorded; extracts from the skin of these worms injected into laboratory animals produces cardiac arrest|
|blister beetles (Cantharis vesicatoria); United States||cantharidin||toxic substance does not seem to be produced by special glands but is found throughout the body of the beetle; no discomfort at time of initial contact; after about 8–10 hours large blisters develop on the skin accompanied by slight burning or tingling sensation; swallowing of the beetles may cause kidney damage; cantharidin is used as an aphrodisiac known as Spanish fly—a very dangerous substance to use; ingestion can cause severe gastroenteritis, kidney damage, blood in the urine, priapism, profound collapse, and death|
|millipedes (species of Orthoporus, Rhinocrichus, Julus, and Spirobolus); temperate and tropical regions||unknown||repugnatorial (distasteful to enemies) fluid may be exuded or forcefully squirted from body pores a distance up to 30 inches or more; contact with the skin causes mild to moderately intense burning pain, redness, and pigmentation of the skin; toxic fluid squirted in the eyes may cause temporary blindness, an inflammatory reaction, and pain|
|venomous ticks (species of Ixodes and Ornithodoros); temperate and tropical regions||unknown||tick bites result in swelling, redness, intense pain, headache, muscle cramps, loss of memory, etc.|
|sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus); Atlantic Ocean||unknown||slime of the lamprey is toxic; ingestion may cause diarrhea|
|soapfish (Rypticus saponaceus); tropical and subtropical Atlantic||neurotoxic||slime of fish is toxic; produces an irritation of the mucous membrane|
|fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra); Europe||skin glands of the salamander are poisonous; contains the alkaloids samandarine, samandenone, samandine, samanine, samandarone, samandaridine, and others||effects on humans not known; affects the heart and nervous system; causes in animals convulsions, cardiac irregularity, paralysis, and death|
|toads (Bufo species); temperate and tropical regions||bufotoxin, bufogenins, and 5-hydroxytryplanime; poison includes a complex of many substances||produces a poisonous secretion in the parotid glands and skin; handling of some toads may cause a skin irritation; ingestion causes nausea, vomiting, numbness of the mouth and tongue, and tightness of the chest; the poison has a digitalis-like action|
|frogs (some species of Dendrobates, Physalaemus, and Rana); northern South America and Central America||skin secretions are poisonous; histamine, bufotenine, physalaemin, serotonin, and other substances; composition varies with the species||skin secretions produce a burning sensation when handled; used by Indians as an arrow poison|
|tree frogs (some species of Hyla and Phyllobates); northern South America, Central America||skin secretions are poisonous; batrachotoxin, steroidal alkaloids, serotonin, histamine, and other substances; bufotenine varies with the species||some frog species produce a burning sensation and a skin rash when handled; skin secretions in the eye may produce a severe inflammatory reaction; if ingested, poison causes vomiting and abdominal pain; batrachotoxin is extremely toxic if injected; used by Indians as an arrow poison|
|Representative venomous animals that inflict a sting|
|name and distribution||toxic principle||toxic effects and comments|
|Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia species); tropical seas||tetramine, 5-hydroxytryptamine||immediate, intense stinging, throbbing, or burning sensation, shooting sensation, inflammatory rash, blistering of the skin, shock, collapse, in very rare cases death|
|sea wasp (Chironex fleckeri); northern and northeast Australia||cardiotoxin||immediate, extremely painful stinging sensation, seared reddened lines wherever the tentacles touch the skin, large indurated wheallike lesions, prostration, dizziness, circulatory failure, respiratory distress, rapid death in a high percentage of cases|
|sea anemone (Actinia equina); Mediterranean, Black Sea, etc.||nature of venom unknown||burning, stinging sensation, itching, swelling, redness, ulceration, nausea, vomiting, prostration; no specific antidote available|
|cone shell (Conus species); tropical Indo-Pacific region||quaternary ammonium compounds and others||blanching at the site of injection, cyanosis of the surrounding area, numbness, stinging or burning sensation, blurring of vision, loss of speech, difficulty in swallowing, nausea, extreme weakness, coma, and death in some cases; no specific antidote|
|spotted octopus (Octopus maculosus); Indo-Pacific, Indian Ocean||cephalotoxin, a neuromuscular poison||sharp burning pain, similar to a bee sting, numbness of the mouth and tongue, blurring of vision, loss of tactile sensation, difficulty in speech and swallowing, paralysis of legs, nausea, prostration, coma, and death in a high percentage of cases|
|kissing bug (Triatoma species); Latin America, United States||unknown||bite usually painless; later itching, edema about the bite, nausea, palpitation, redness; the bite is of relatively minor importance but spreads Chagas disease caused by a trypanosome (protozoan)|
|puss caterpillar (Megalopyge species); United States, Latin America||unknown||stinging hairs of the caterpillar associated with poison-secreting glands; contact with the hairs produces an intense burning pain, itching, pustules, redness, nausea, fever, numbness, swelling, and paralysis; recovery usually within about six days|
|honeybee (Apis species); worldwide||neurotoxin, hemolytic, melittin, hyaluronidase, phospholipase A, histamine, and others||sting produces acute local pain or burning sensation, blanching at the site of the sting surrounded by a zone of redness, and itching; local symptoms usually disappear after 24 hours; severe cases may develop massive swelling, redness, shock, prostration, vomiting, rapid heartbeat, respiratory distress, trembling, coma, and death; it is estimated that 500 stings delivered in a short period of time can provide a lethal dose to a human; bees kill more people in the United States than do venomous reptiles|
|bumblebee (Bombus species); temperate regions||similar to honeybee (Apis) venom||stings are similar to honeybee (Apis) stings; bumblebees are not as vicious as honeybees|
|yellow jacket, hornet (Vespula species); temperate regions||similar to bee venom; also acetylcholine||they can both bite and sting; the sting is similar to that of the honeybee's but more painful; yellow jackets are quite aggressive; stings may be fatal|
|wasp (Polistes species and Vespa species); worldwide||similar to bee venom; also acetylcholine||wasps are less aggressive than hornets, and their sting is similar to the honeybee's but generally less painful than the hornet's; stings may be fatal|
|harvester ant (Pogonomyrmex species); United States||bradykinin, formic acid, hyaluronidase, hemolytic, phospholipase A, and others||ant stings cause immediate intense burning, pain, blanched area at site of sting surrounded by redness, ulceration, fever, blistering, itching, hemorrhaging into the skin, eczematoid dermatitis, pustules, respiratory distress, prostration, coma, and death in some instances|
|fire ant (Solenopsis species); United States, Latin America||similar to harvester-ant venom||similar to above; stings are very painful, burning sensation, etc.|
|millipede (Apheloria species and others); temperate areas||hydrogen cyanide and benzaldehyde||toxic liquid or gas from lateral glands causes inflammation, swelling, and blindness in contact with eyes, and brown stain, redness, swelling, and vesicle formation in contact with skin|
|centipede (Scolopendra species); temperate and tropical regions||hemolytic phospholipase and serotonin||local pain, swelling, and redness at bite site|
|brown spider (Loxosceles species); United States, South America, Europe, Asia||cytotoxic, hyaluronidase, hemolytic, and others||bite causes stinging sensation or burning pain, blanching at site of bite surrounded by redness, blistering, hemorrhages into the skin and internal organs, ulceration, vomiting, fever, cardiovascular collapse, convulsions, sometimes death|
|black widow (Latrodectus species); tropical and temperate regions||neurotoxic||bite may or may not be painful, two tiny red dots at site of bite, localized swelling after a few minutes; intense cramping pain of abdomen, legs, chest, back; rigidity of muscles lasting 12–48 hours, nausea, sweating, respiratory distress, priapism (abnormal, painful erection of the penis) in males, chills, skin rash, restlessness, fever, numbness, tingling; about 4 percent are fatal; antiserum is available|
|tarantula (Dugesiella and Lycosa species); temperate and tropical regions||venom varies, usually mild||most of the large tarantulas found in the United States, Mexico, and Central America are harmless to humans; some of the large tropical species may be more poisonous, but their effects are largely localized|
|scorpion (species of Centruroides, Tityus, and Leiurus); warm temperate and tropical regions||neurotoxin, cardiotoxin, hemolytic, lecithinase, hyaluronidase, and others||symptoms vary depending upon the species of scorpion; sting from the tail stinger causes a sharp burning sensation, swelling, sweating, restlessness, salivation, confusion, vomiting, abdominal pain, chest pain, numbness, muscular twitching, respiratory distress, convulsions, death; the mortality rate from stings from certain species of scorpions is very high; antiserum is available|
|crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci); Indo-Pacific||nature of poison unknown||penetration of the spines produces a painful wound, redness, swelling, vomiting, numbness, and paralysis|
|long-spined sea urchin (Diadema setosum); Indo-Pacific||nature of poison unknown||penetration of the spines produces an immediate and intense burning sensation, redness, swelling, numbness, muscular paralysis|
|sea urchin (Toxopneustes pileolus); Indo-Pacific||nature of poison unknown||bites from the stinging jaws or pedicellariae (small pincerlike organs) produce an immediate, intense, radiating pain, faintness, numbness, muscular paralysis, respiratory distress, and occasionally death|
|Sharks and rays|
|stingray (Dasyatis species); warm temperate and tropical seas||stingray venom, cardiotoxin, chemistry unknown||penetration of the tail spines inflicts jagged painful wounds that produce sharp, shooting, throbbing pain, fall in blood pressure, nausea, vomiting, cardiac failure, muscular paralysis, rarely death; no known antidote; stingrays are among the most common causes of envenomations in the marine environment|
|weever fish (Trachinus draco); Mediterranean Sea||weever fish venom, chemistry unknown||opercular and dorsal fin spines can produce instant pain, burning, stabbing or crushing sensation; pain spreads and becomes progressively more intense, causing the victim to scream with anguish and suffer loss of consciousness, numbness about the wound, swelling, redness, nausea, delirium, difficulty in breathing, convulsions, and death; no known antidote|
|scorpion fish (Scorpaena species); temperate and tropical seas||scorpion fish venom, chemistry unknown||fin spines can inflict painful stings and intense, immediate pain that may cause victim to scream followed by redness, swelling, loss of consciousness, ulceration of the wound, paralysis, cardiac failure, delirium, convulsions, nausea, prostration, and respiratory distress, but rarely death; no known antidote|
|stonefish (Synanceja species); Indo-Pacific region||stonefish venom, chemistry unknown||produces an extremely painful sting by means of the dorsal fin spines; symptoms similar to other scorpion fish stings but more serious|
|Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum); southwestern United States||heloderma venom, primarily a neurotoxin||all of the teeth are venomous; bite causes local pain, swelling, weakness, ringing of the ears, nausea, respiratory distress, cardiac failure; may cause death; no antiserum available|
|Representative animals poisonous when eaten|
|*Fish poisoning is categorically referred to as "ichthyosarcotoxism," but there are several different forms of fish poisoning, such as ciguatera fish poisoning, clupeotoxism, scombrotoxism, and others.|
**More than 400 species of tropical reef fishes have been involved in ciguatera fish poisoning. These fish are normally edible but under certain conditions may become toxic.
|name and distribution||toxic principle||toxic effects and comments|
|dinoflagellate (Gymnodinium breve); Gulf of Mexico, Florida||unknown||irritation of mucous membranes of nose and throat; causes sneezing, coughing, respiratory distress due to inhalation of windblown spray from red tide areas|
|dinoflagellate (Gonyaulax catenella); Pacific coast of North America||paralytic shellfish poison, saxitoxin||tingling, burning sensation and numbness of lips, tongue, face, spreading elsewhere in the body; weakness, dizziness, joint aches, hypersalivation, intense thirst, difficulty in swallowing, muscular paralysis, and death; extremely toxic; usually involved with the eating of shellfish that have been feeding on toxic dinoflagellates|
|Mollusks—octopus, squid, shellfish, and others|
|California mussel (Mytilus californianus); Pacific coast of North America||paralytic shellfish poison, saxitoxin||these mollusks become poisonous to eat because of feeding on toxic dinoflagellates; symptoms same as for dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax species)|
|butter clam (Saxidomus giganteus); Alaska to California||same as California mussel|
|whelk (Neptunea species); Europe, Pacific region||tetramine||nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, fatigue; dizziness, photophobia (intolerance to light), impaired vision, and dryness of the mouth; poison is believed to be restricted to the salivary glands of the whelk|
|turban shell (Turbo argyrostoma); tropical Pacific Ocean||poison believed to be related to ciguatoxin||diarrhea, weakness of the legs, fatigue; cold water produces a painful stinging sensation, itching; the illness closely resembles ciguatera fish poisoning|
|Callista shellfish (Callista brevisiphonata); Japan||a histamine-like substance, choline||flushing of the face, itching, urticaria (stinging sensation of skin), sensation of constriction of the chest, abdominal pain, nausea, respiratory distress, asthmatic attacks, paralysis, hypersalivation, numbness of the tongue, throat; recovery usually within 10 days|
|Arthropods—joint-legged animals: crabs, spiders, and others|
|shore crab (Demania toxica); Philippines||unknown||nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscular weakness, respiratory distress, difficulty in speaking, hypersalivation, muscular paralysis, convulsions, death|
|crab (Zozymus aeneus); Indo-Pacific||similar to tetrodotoxin; toxicity of these crabs variable||tingling about the mouth, nausea, vomiting, muscular paralysis, coma, convulsions, death|
|Asiatic horseshoe crab (Tachypleus tridentatus); Southeast Asia||unknown||dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, cardiac palpitation, numbness of the lips, weakness, muscular paralysis, hypersalivation, loss of consciousness, death|
|Sharks, eels, and other fish|
|Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus); Arctic||unknown; flesh toxic; liver of tropical sharks very toxic and may also cause death||nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, tingling and burning sensation of the tongue, throat, and esophagus, muscular cramps, respiratory distress, coma, death|
|moray eel (Gymnothorax javanicus); Indo-Pacific**||ciguatoxin*||symptoms may develop rapidly or slowly; tingling about the lips, tongue, and throat, followed by numbness, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, muscular weakness, paralysis, convulsions, teeth feeling loose, visual impairment, skin rash, hot objects feeling cold and vice versa ("Dry Ice" or "electric shock" sensation); loss of muscular coordination, coma, death in about 12 percent of the cases; known as ciguatera fish poisoning, this is one of the most common forms of fish poisoning|
|red snapper (Lutjanus bohar); Indo-Pacific**||same as moray eel|
|Chinese gizzard shad (Clupanodon thrissa); Indo-Pacific||clupeotoxin, chemical nature unknown||metallic taste, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, vascular collapse, hypersalivation, numbness, muscular paralysis, convulsions, coma, death; this form of poisoning develops rapidly and violently; mortality rate is about 50 percent and death may come within a few minutes; this form of fish poisoning is known as clupeotoxism; no known antidote|
|castor-oil fish (Ruvettus pretiosus); tropical Atlantic, Indo-Pacific||oleic acid||produces a painless diarrhea; poisoning known as gempylotoxism; no treatment needed|
|skipjack tuna (Euthynnus pelamis); tropical seas
bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus); subtropical and temperate seas
|saurine, a histamine-like substance; scombroid fishes (mackerels, tunas, swordfishes, and allies) contain a chemical constituent in their flesh called histidine; when histidine is acted upon, it forms a histamine-like substance called saurine; this occurs when the fishes are permitted to stand at room temperature for several hours; scombroid fishes are more susceptible to the development of saurine poison than most other kinds of fishes||the symptoms of acute scombroid poisoning resemble those of severe allergy: sharp, peppery taste, headache, throbbing of the large blood vessels of the neck, nausea, vomiting, massive red welts, and intense itching; recovery after 8–12 hours; this is probably the most common and cosmopolitan form of fish poisoning; antihistamines are used for treatment|
|poison puffer (Arothron hispidus); tropical Pacific, Indian Ocean, Red Sea||tetrodotoxin||tingling of lips and tongue, loss of motor coordination, floating sensation, hypersalivation, numbness of the entire body, muscular paralysis, difficulty in swallowing, weakness, nausea, vomiting, convulsions, about 60 percent fatality in humans; no known antidote|
|California newt (Taricha torosa); California||tarichatoxin; poison said to be identical to tetrodotoxin; the eggs of this newt are extremely toxic||effects in humans are unknown; no known antidote|
|hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata); tropical seas
leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea); temperate and tropical seas
|chelonitoxin, chemistry unknown; the flesh of some species of marine turtles is extremely poisonous||nausea, vomiting, diarrhea; burning sensation of lips, tongue, mouth; tightness of the chest, difficulty in swallowing, hypersalivation, foul breath, skin rash, sloughing of the skin, enlargement of the liver, coma, death; fatality rate is high; no known antidote|
|sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis); North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans||unknown; livers of many marine mammals are toxic||intense headache, neck pain, photophobia, desquamation (peeling in scales) around the mouth and face, flushing of the face; antihistamines are used in treatment|
|white whale (Delphinapterus leucas); Arctic seas||unknown||flesh is poisonous and has caused fatalities in humans; no known antidote|
|polar bear (Thalarctos maritimus); Arctic||vitamin A and possibly other toxic substances||intense throbbing headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, dizziness, drowsiness, irritability, muscle cramps, visual disturbances, collapse, coma, rarely death|
Some of the most complex relationships in biotoxicology are found in the marine environment. Certain marine biotoxins, such as ciguatera fish poison, apparently originate in marine plants, are ingested by herbivores and then passed on to carnivores and eventually to humans. The extremely complex mechanism by which this is accomplished is not clear. With the buildup of toxic industrial chemical pollutants in the marine environment, the problems of toxicity in marine organisms are becoming increasingly more serious. There is evidence that under certain conditions chemical pollutants may trigger biotoxicity cycles in marine organisms. The outbreaks in Japan of Minamata disease were the result of such a cycle: microorganisms, algae, shellfishes, and fishes ingested or absorbed industrial wastes with highly toxic organic compounds containing mercury and were in turn consumed by humans, causing a number of deaths among the population.
The relationships of representative poisonous animals and their position in the total framework of the animal kingdom can best be appreciated by categorizing them according to the group in which they belong. They are further grouped as to whether they are poisonous to eat, venomous, or crinotoxic in Tables 7, 8, and 9.Bruce W. Halstead The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Radiation, radioactivity, and radioisotopes
Radiation is a flow of energy through space or matter. It takes the form of particles (e.g., alpha and beta particles) or electromagnetic waves (e.g., X rays, gamma rays, and visible and ultraviolet [UV] light). Radiation can be classified as either ionizing or nonionizing depending on its ability to produce ions in the matter it interacts with. Ionizing radiation is more toxic than nonionizing radiation.
Radioactivity is the emission of radiation caused by the disintegration of unstable nuclei of radioisotopes. After disintegration, a radioisotope may become a radioisotope of another element, which will further disintegrate. The disintegration series continues until a stable isotope is formed.
Ionizing radiation is radiation that produces ions in matter during interaction with atoms in the matter. The toxic effect of ionizing radiation is related to the ionization. It is believed that ionization of tissues, composed mainly of water, generates H2O+ and H2O− ions, which in turn form H and OH radicals. Because radicals are very reactive chemically, biological damage, such as attacks on DNA and proteins, results.
There are two classes of ionizing radiation: particulate and eletromagnetic. Alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and positrons are examples of particulate ionizing radiation. Gamma rays and X rays are electromagnetic ionizing radiation.
Among particulate ionizing radiation, alpha and beta particles are the forms most commonly encountered in the environment and are biologically the most significant. Composed of two neutrons and two protons and thus containing a 2+ charge, alpha particles are the heaviest ionizing particles. Although they do not penetrate tissue very well, alpha particles turn many atoms in their short paths into ions, producing intense tissue ionization.
In contrast to alpha particles, beta particles are electrons of little mass carrying only one negative charge. They penetrate up to several millimetres in soft tissues. Their low mass and low charge mean that only moderate ionization is produced in tissues when beta particles collide with atoms in its path.
Gamma rays and X rays are electromagnetic radiation of similar properties, with gamma rays having higher energy than X rays. Gamma rays usually accompany the formation of alpha or beta particles. Neither gamma rays nor X rays carry a charge, and neither have mass; consequently, they can penetrate tissues easily, creating moderate ionization along their paths.
Biological damage is related to the degree of tissue ionization produced by radiation. Thus, a physical dose of alpha particles does not produce the same amount of damage as that produced by the same dose of beta particles, gamma rays, or X rays.
Radiation is either natural or man-made. Natural radiation includes cosmic radiation, terrestrial radiation, radioisotopes inside human bodies, and radon gas. Cosmic radiation consists of charged particles from outer space, and terrestrial radiation of gamma rays from radionuclides in the Earth. Radioisotopes in human bodies come from the food, water, and air consumed. Cosmic and terrestrial radiation, together with radioisotopes inside human bodies, contribute only one-third of the total natural radiation dose. The remaining two-thirds can be attributed to radon, a radioactive gas released from soil that may reach a high level inside buildings with poor ventilation. Man-made radiation consists of radiation from medical and dental diagnostic procedures, atmospheric tests of atomic bombs, emissions from nuclear plants, certain occupational activities, and some consumer products. The largest nonoccupational radiation sources are tobacco smoke for smokers and indoor radon gas for the nonsmoking population.
Emissions from nuclear power plants contribute only a very small portion of the total yearly radiation received. The low dose reflects the negligible amount of radionuclides released during normal operation, although the amount released can be much higher after a nuclear reactor accident. Not every reactor accident is a disaster, however. The 1979 accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power station, near Harrisburg, Pa., released only a small amount of radiation (0.8 and 0.015 mSv within a 16- and 80-km radius, respectively), less than the background annual radiation dose. The nuclear reactor accident at Chernobyl in the Soviet Union, in 1986, however, was much more devastating, leading to more than 30 deaths and the evacuation of thousands of nearby residents.
Adverse effects of ionizing radiation
Ionizing radiation quickly kills rapidly dividing cells. In general, immature blood cells in bone marrow, cells lining the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract, and cells in the lower layers of the epidermis and in hair follicles are the most rapidly dividing cells in the body. As a result, radiation leads to the decreased production of blood cells, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, malabsorption by the intestine, skin burns, and hair loss. Because of its relatively selective lethal effect on rapidly dividing cells, however, ionizing radiation is used in the treatment of certain cancers. Some cells in the embryo and fetus also divide rapidly, and thus ionizing radiation can cause malformations and even fetal death. Ionizing radiation can also produce mutations by altering the DNA, and it can result in cancer.
Toxicities of whole-body ionizing radiation
X rays and gamma rays irradiate the body uniformly and acutely affect all of the tissues discussed above. At sufficiently high doses, this type of radiation can lead to a condition known as acute radiation syndrome. The most sensitive tissue is the bone marrow, where blood cells are generated. The next tissue affected is the gastrointestinal tract. If the dose is high, the central nervous system is affected and the person becomes uncoordinated and disoriented and experiences tremors, convulsions, and coma. At even higher doses, the skin, eyes, and ovaries and testes are affected. Death may follow from 2 to 35 days after exposure. Exposure to radiation can also result in cancers of the bone marrow (leading to leukemia), lungs, kidneys, bladder, esophagus, stomach, colon, thyroid, or breasts.
Radioisotopes that are absorbed and distributed evenly throughout the body also can result in whole-body irradiation. Examples are tritium and cesium-137, both of which release beta particles that can lead to bone marrow toxicities and even, in the case of cesium-137, to death. The toxicity of tritium is less severe than that of cesium-137 because the beta particles generated by tritium are less energetic and because cesium-137 also releases gamma rays.
Local toxicities of common beta-particle emitters
Unlike tritium and cesium-137, the isotopes strontium-90, iodine-131, and cerium-144 emit beta particles that are not distributed evenly in the body. Strontium-90 releases only beta particles, while iodine-131 and cerium-144 release both beta particles and gamma rays, but their toxicities are primarily caused by the beta particles. These radioisotopes produce toxicities in the tissues where they are stored or concentrated. Strontium-90 and cerium-144 chemically resemble calcium and as a result are stored in bone. Therefore, these two radioisotopes produce bone cancer and leukemia, which is a result of the irradiation of bone marrow. Iodine-131 is concentrated in the thyroid and produces thyroid damage and tumours.
Local toxicities of common alpha-particle emitters
There are radioisotopes that emit primarily alpha particles, together with some gamma rays. Because the destructive effect on tissues of alpha particles is far greater than that of gamma rays, the toxicities of these radioisotopes are contributed mainly by the alpha particles. Because of the limited penetrability of alpha particles, only tissues in the near vicinity of the isotopic molecules are affected. These radioisotopes typically produce tumours at the storage site.
Most of the common alpha-particle emitters belong to the uranium series, which consists of radioisotopes that form one after another, via a nuclear decay reaction, and release mainly alpha particles. The series starts with uranium-238. The nuclear disintegration of uranium-238 forms radium-226 which disintegrates to form radon gas (radon-222). Radon decays to form a series of daughter nuclides, most of which are alpha-particle-releasing isotopes, such as polonium-210. The radioisotopes in the uranium series are important because uranium is the starting fuel for many nuclear reactors and because daughter nuclides in this series are commonly found in the environment.
The toxicity of uranium-238 depends on the water solubility of the uranium compound. Water-soluble forms mainly cause kidney injury, while the insoluble forms produce fibrosis and cancer of the lung. Because of its similarity to calcium, radium-226 is stored mainly in the bone, and it produces abnormal changes in the bone marrow, including anemia and leukemia, cancers of the bone, and paranasal sinuses. The next radioisotope in the uranium series is radon, radon-222. Although radon is radioactive, its toxicity is not due to retention of the gas by the lungs but rather to the series of radioactive daughter nuclides in particulate form. These particulate daughter nuclides are deposited on the respiratory tract when inhaled, the respiratory tract is irradiated by the alpha particles released, and lung cancer can result.
Other radioisotopes do not belong to the uranium series. For example, radium-224, which is deposited mainly on bone surfaces, has been used in Europe to treat ankylosing spondylitis. Because of its short half-life (3.6 days), it affects only the bone surface and not the bone marrow. Its major toxicity is the production of bone cancer. Like uranium-238, plutonium-239, which is used in some nuclear reactors and in nuclear bombs, primarily releases alpha particles. Although there are no human data, animal studies indicate that the toxicity of plutonium-239 is similar to that of insoluble uranium-238 in causing fibrosis and cancer of the lung.
Nonionizing radiation includes ultraviolet light, infrared radiation, microwaves, and radio frequencies, all of which are electromagnetic waves. The toxicity of radio frequencies is rather low. On the whole, nonionizing radiation is not as toxic as ionizing radiation, and the various forms of nonionization radiation share common target organs; particularly the skin and eyes.
The toxicity of ultraviolet light depends on its wavelength. Ultraviolet-A (near UV) has a wavelength of 315–400 nanometres, ultraviolet-B (mid UV) has one of 280–315 nanometres, and ultraviolet-C (far UV) has one of 200–280 nanometres. Ultraviolet-A affects primarily the skin and causes burns at high energy levels. The toxicities of ultraviolet-B and ultraviolet-C are similar, but ultraviolet-C is less toxic because it does not penetrate tissues as deeply. Both ultraviolet-B and ultraviolet-C cause injuries to the eyes and skin. Ultraviolet-B is the major component of sunlight and accelerates the aging of skin by damaging the collagen fibres under it. Ultraviolet-B also is the cause of an occupational disease known as “welder’s flash,” or “arc eye,” which is characterized by photophobia, tears in the eyes, spasm of the eyelids, and eye inflammation. Finally, ultraviolet-B can cause skin cancer, which may be a result of the linking of thymidines, a base in DNA, produced by ultraviolet-B radiation.
The major mechanism of toxicity of infrared radiation and microwaves is the production of heat in tissues. Infrared-A (wavelength 0.8–1.4 micrometres) penetrates the skin, causing burns and pigmentation. Infrared-A also penetrates the liquid content of the eye to reach the retina and can therefore produce damage to all parts of the eye. In contrast, infrared-B and infrared-C (wavelength 1.4–3,000 micrometres) are almost completely absorbed by the superficial layers of the skin and eyes, and the damage is thus confined to the surface. Microwaves (wavelength 1 millimetre to 1 metre) produce heat in tissues. Because testes and eyes do not dissipate heat well, due to low blood flow through these organs, temporary sterility and cataracts can be produced by microwaves.
Lasers are high-energy light beams, visible and nonvisible, generated by atoms at an excited state and further amplified by optics. Like most other nonionizing radiation, lasers can produce skin burns. Visible lasers, with a wavelength from 0.4 to 1.4 micrometres, will cause retinal damage if they enter the eyes and are focused by the lens onto the retina.
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