Chapter 1 - Introduction To Flying
Introduction To Flying
The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge for the student pilot learning to ﬂy, as well as pilots seeking advanced pilot certiﬁcation. For detailed information on a variety of specialized ﬂight topics, see speciﬁc Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) handbooks and Advisory Circulars (ACs).
This chapter offers a brief history of ﬂight, introduces the history and role of the FAA in civil aviation, FAA regulations and standards, government references and publications, eligibility for pilot certiﬁcates, available routes to ﬂight instruction, the role of the Certiﬁcated Flight Instructor (CFI) and Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) in ﬂight training, and Practical Test Standards (PTS).
History of Flight
From prehistoric times, humans have watched the ﬂight of birds, longed to imitate them, but lacked the power to do so. Logic dictated that if the small muscles of birds can lift them into the air and sustain them, then the larger muscles of humans should be able to duplicate the feat. No one knew about the intricate mesh of muscles, sinew, heart, breathing system, and devices not unlike wing ﬂaps, variable-camber and spoilers of the modern airplane that enabled a bird to ﬂy. Still, thousands of years and countless lives were lost in attempts to ﬂy like birds.
The identity of the ﬁrst “bird-men” who ﬁtted themselves with wings and leapt off a cliff in an effort to ﬂy are lost in time, but each failure gave those who wished to ﬂy questions that needed answering. Where had the wing ﬂappers gone wrong? Philosophers, scientists, and inventors offered solutions, but no one could add wings to the human body and soar like a bird. During the 1500s, Leonardo da Vinci ﬁlled pages of his notebooks with sketches of proposed ﬂying machines, but most of his ideas were ﬂawed because he clung to the idea of birdlike wings. [Figure 1-1] By 1655, mathematician, physicist, and inventor Robert Hooke concluded the human body does not possess the strength to power artiﬁcial wings. He believed human ﬂight would require some form of artiﬁcial propulsion.
Figure 1-1. Leonardo da Vinci’s ornithopter wings.
The quest for human ﬂight led some practitioners in another direction. In 1783, the ﬁrst manned hot air balloon, crafted by Joseph and Etienne Montgolﬁer, ﬂew for 23 minutes. Ten days later, Professor Jacques Charles ﬂew the ﬁrst gas balloon. A madness for balloon ﬂight captivated the public’s imagination and for a time ﬂying enthusiasts turned their expertise to the promise of lighter-than-air ﬂight. But for all its majesty in the air, the balloon was little more than a billowing heap of cloth capable of no more than a one-way, downwind journey.
Balloons solved the problem of lift, but that was only one of the problems of human ﬂight. The ability to control speed and direction eluded balloonists. The solution to that problem lay in a child’s toy familiar to the East for 2,000 years, but not introduced to the West until the 13th century. The kite, used by the Chinese manned for aerial observation and to test winds for sailing, and unmanned as a signaling device and as a toy, held many of the answers to lifting a heavier-than-air device into the air.
One of the men who believed the study of kites unlocked the secrets of winged ﬂight was Sir George Cayley. Born in England 10 years before the Mongolﬁer balloon ﬂight, Cayley spent his 84 years seeking to develop a heavier-than-air vehicle supported by kite-shaped wings. [Figure 1-2] The “Father of Aerial Navigation,” Cayley discovered the basic principles on which the modern science of aeronautics is founded, built what is recognized as the ﬁrst successful ﬂying model, and tested the ﬁrst full-size man-carrying airplane.
Figure 1-2. Glider from 1852 by Sir George Cayley, British aviator (1773–1857).
For the half-century after Cayley’s death, countless scientists, ﬂying enthusiasts, and inventors worked toward building a powered ﬂying machine. Men, such as William Samuel Henson, who designed a huge monoplane that was propelled by a steam engine housed inside the fuselage, and Otto Lilienthal, who proved human ﬂight in aircraft heavier than air was practical, worked toward the dream of powered ﬂight. A dream turned into reality by Wilbur and Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903.
The bicycle-building Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio, had experimented for 4 years with kites, their own homemade wind tunnel, and different engines to power their biplane. One of their great achievements was proving the value of the scientiﬁc, rather than build-it-and-see approach to ﬂight. Their biplane, The Flyer, combined inspired design and engineering with superior craftsmanship. [Figure 1-3] By the afternoon of December 17th, the Wright brothers had ﬂown a total of 98 seconds on four ﬂights. The age of ﬂight had arrived.
Figure 1-3. First flight by the Wright brothers.
History of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
During the early years of manned ﬂight, aviation was a free for all because no government body was in place to establish policies or regulate and enforce safety standards. Individuals were free to conduct ﬂights and operate aircraft with no government oversight. Most of the early ﬂights were conducted for sport. Aviation was expensive and became the playground of the wealthy. Since these early airplanes were small, many people doubted their commercial value. One group of individuals believed otherwise and they became the genesis for modern airline travel.
P. E. Fansler, a Florida businessman living in St. Petersburg approached Tom Benoist of the Benoist Aircraft Company in St. Louis, Missouri, about starting a ﬂight route from St. Petersburg across the waterway to Tampa. Benoist suggested using his “Safety First” airboat and the two men signed an agreement for what would become the ﬁrst scheduled airline in the United States. The ﬁrst aircraft was delivered to St. Petersburg and made the ﬁrst test ﬂight on December 31, 1913. [Figure 1-4]
Figure 1-4. Benoist airboat.
A public auction decided who would win the honor of becoming the ﬁrst paying airline customer. The former mayor of St. Petersburg, A. C. Pheil made the winning bid of $400.00 which secured his place in history as the ﬁrst paying airline passenger.
On January 1, 1914, the ﬁrst scheduled airline ﬂight was conducted. The ﬂight length was 21 miles and lasted 23 minutes due to a headwind. The return trip took 20 minutes. The line, which was subsidized by Florida businessmen, continued for 4 months and offered regular passage for $5.00 per person or $5.00 per 100 pounds of cargo. Shortly after the opening of the line, Benoist added a new airboat that afforded more protection from spray during takeoff and landing. The routes were also extended to Manatee, Bradenton, and Sarasota giving further credence to the idea of a proﬁtable commercial airline.
The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line continued throughout the winter months with ﬂights ﬁnally being suspended when the winter tourist industry began to dry up. The airline operated only for 4 months, but 1,205 passengers were carried without injury. This experiment proved commercial passenger airline travel was viable.
The advent of World War I offered the airplane a chance to demonstrate its varied capabilities. It began the war as a reconnaissance platform, but by 1918, airplanes were being mass produced to serve as ﬁghters, bombers, trainers, as well as reconnaissance platforms.
Aviation advocates continued to look for ways to use airplanes. Airmail service was a popular idea, but the war prevented the Postal Service from having access to airplanes. The War Department and Postal Service reached an agreement in 1918. The Army would use the mail service to train its pilots in cross-country ﬂying. The ﬁrst airmail ﬂight was conducted on May 15, 1918, between New York and Washington, DC. The ﬂight was not considered spectacular; the pilot became lost and landed at the wrong airﬁeld. In August of 1918, the United States Postal Service took control of the airmail routes and brought the existing Army airmail pilots and their planes into the program as postal employees.
Transcontinental Air Mail Route
Airmail routes continued to expand until the Transcontinental Mail Route was inaugurated. [Figure 1-5] This route spanned from San Francisco to New York for a total distance of 2,612 miles with 13 intermediate stops along the way. [Figure 1-6]
Figure 1-5. The de Haviland DH-4 on the New York to San Francisco inaugural route in 1921.
The Air Commerce Act charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air trafﬁc rules, licensing pilots, certiﬁcating aircraft, establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. The Department of Commerce created a new Aeronautics Branch whose primary mission was to provide oversight for the aviation industry. In addition, the Aeronautics Branch took over the construction and operation of the nation’s system of lighted airways. The Postal Service, as part of the Transcontinental Air Mail Route system, had initiated this system. The Department of Commerce made great advances in aviation communications, as well as introducing radio beacons as an effective means of navigation.
Figure 1-6. The transcontinental airmail route ran from New York to San Francisco. Intermediate stops were: 2) Bellefonte, 3) Cleveland, 4) Bryan, 5) Chicago, 6) Iowa City, 7) Omaha, 8) North Platte, 9) Cheyenne, 10) Rawlins, 11) Rock Springs, 12) Salt Lake City, 13) Elko, and 14) Reno.
Built at intervals of approximately 10 miles, the standard beacon tower was 51 feet high, topped with a powerful rotating light. Below the rotating light, two course lights pointed forward and back along the airway. The course lights ﬂashed a code to identify the beacon’s number. The tower usually stood in the center of a concrete arrow 70 feet long. A generator shed, where required, stood at the “feather” end of the arrow. [Figure 1-7]
Figure 1-7. A standard airway beacon tower.
Federal Certiﬁcation of Pilots and Mechanics
The Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce began pilot certiﬁcation with the ﬁrst license issued on April 6, 1927. The recipient was the chief of the Aeronautics Branch, William P. MacCracken, Jr. [Figure 1-8] (Orville Wright, who was no longer an active ﬂier, had declined the honor.) MacCracken’s license was the ﬁrst issued to a pilot by a civilian agency of the Federal Government. Some 3 months later, the Aeronautics Branch issued the ﬁrst Federal aircraft mechanic license.
Figure 1-8. The first pilot license was issued to William P. MacCracken, Jr.
Equally important for safety was the establishment of a system of certiﬁcation for aircraft. On March 29, 1927, the Aeronautics Branch issued the ﬁrst airworthiness type certiﬁcate to the Buhl Airster CA-3, a three-place open biplane.
In 1934, to recognize the tremendous strides made in aviation and to display the enhanced status within the department, the Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce. [Figure 1-9] Within this time frame, the Bureau of Air Commerce brought together a group of airlines and encouraged them to form the ﬁrst three Air Trafﬁc Control (ATC) facilities along the established air routes. Then in 1936, the Bureau of Air Commerce took over the responsibilities of operating the centers and continued to advance the ATC facilities. ATC has come a long way from the early controllers using maps, chalkboards, and performing mental math calculations in order to separate aircraft along ﬂight routes.
Figure 1-9. The third head of the Aeronautics Branch, Eugene L. Vidal, is flanked by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (left) and Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace (right). The photograph was taken in 1933. During Vidal’s tenure, the Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce on July 1, 1934. The new name more accurately reflected the status of the organization within the Department of Commerce.
The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938
In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil aviation responsibilities to a newly created, independent body, named the Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA). This Act empowered the CAA to regulate airfares and establish new routes for the airlines to service.
President Franklin Roosevelt split the CAA into two agencies, the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). Both agencies were still part of the Department of Commerce but the CAB functioned independently of the Secretary of Commerce. The role of the CAA was to facilitate ATC, certiﬁcation of airmen and aircraft, rule enforcement, and the development of new airways. The CAB was charged with rule making to enhance safety, accident investigation, and the economic regulation of the airlines. Then in 1946, Congress gave the CAA the responsibility of administering the Federal Aid Airport Program. This program was designed to promote the establishment of civil airports throughout the country.
The Federal Aviation Act of 1958
By mid-century, air trafﬁc had increased and jet aircraft had been introduced into the civil aviation arena. A series of mid-air collisions underlined the need for more regulation of the aviation industry. Aircraft were not only increasing in numbers, but were now streaking across the skies at much higher speeds. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 established a new independent body that assumed the roles of the CAA and transferred the rule making authority of the CAB to the newly created Federal Aviation Agency (FAA). In addition, the FAA was given complete control of the common civil-military system of air navigation and ATC. The man who was given the honor of being the ﬁrst administrator of the FAA was former Air Force General Elwood Richard “Pete” Quesada. He served as the administrator from 1959–1961. [Figure 1-10]
Figure 1-10. First Administrator of the FAA was General Elwood Richard “Pete” Quesada, 1959–1961.
Department of Transportation (DOT)
On October 15, 1966, Congress established the Department of Transportation (DOT), which was given oversight of the transportation industry within the United States. The result was a combination of both air and surface transportation. Its mission was and is to serve the United States by ensuring a fast, safe, efﬁcient, accessible, and convenient transportation system meeting vital national interests and enhancing the quality of life of the American people, then, now, and into the future. At this same time, the Federal Aviation Agency was renamed to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The DOT began operation on April 1, 1967.
The role of the CAB was assumed by the newly created National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), which was charged with the investigation of all transportation accidents within the United States.
As aviation continued to grow, the FAA took on additional duties and responsibilities. With the highjacking epidemic of the 1960s, the FAA was responsible for increasing the security duties of aviation both on the ground and in the air. After September 11, 2001, the duties were transferred to a newly created body called the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).
With numerous aircraft ﬂying in and out of larger cities, the FAA began to concentrate on the environmental aspect of aviation by establishing and regulating the noise standards of aircraft. Additionally in the 1960s and 1970s, the FAA began to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon ﬂying. 1970 brought more duties to the FAA by adding the management of a new federal airport aid program and increased responsibility for airport safety.
Air Trafﬁc Control (ATC) Automation
By the mid-1970s, the FAA had achieved a semi-automated ATC system based on a marriage of radar and computer technology. By automating certain routine tasks, the system allowed controllers to concentrate more efﬁciently on the vital task of providing aircraft separation. Data appearing directly on the controllers’ scopes provided the identity, altitude, and groundspeed of aircraft carrying radar beacons. Despite its effectiveness, this system required enhancement to keep pace with the increased air trafﬁc of the late 1970s. The increase was due in part to the competitive environment created by the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978. This law phased out CAB’s economic regulation of the airlines, and CAB ceased to exist at the end of 1984.
To meet the challenge of trafﬁc growth, the FAA unveiled the National Airspace System (NAS) Plan in January 1982. The new plan called for more advanced systems for en route and terminal ATC, modernized ﬂight service stations, and improvements in ground-to-air surveillance and communication.
The Professional Air Trafﬁc Controllers Organization (PATCO) Strike
While preparing the NAS Plan, the FAA faced a strike by key members of its workforce. An earlier period of discord between management and the Professional Air Trafﬁc Controllers Organization (PATCO) culminated in a 1970 “sickout” by 3,000 controllers. Although controllers subsequently gained additional wage and retirement beneﬁts, another period of tension led to an illegal strike in August 1981. The government dismissed over 11,000 strike participants and decertiﬁed PATCO. By the spring of 1984, the FAA ended the last of the special restrictions imposed to keep the airspace system operating safely during the strike.
The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978
Until 1978, the CAB regulated many areas of commercial aviation such as fares, routes, and schedules. The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978, however, removed many of these controls, thus changing the face of civil aviation in the United States. After deregulation, unfettered free competition ushered in a new era in passenger air travel.
The CAB had three main functions: to award routes to airlines, to limit the entry of air carriers into new markets, and to regulate fares for passengers. Much of the established practices of commercial passenger travel within the United States went back to the policies of Walter Folger Brown, the United States Postmaster General during the administration of President Herbert Hoover. Brown had changed the mail payments system to encourage the manufacture of passenger aircraft instead of mail-carrying aircraft. His influence was crucial in awarding contracts and helped create four major domestic airlines: United, American, Eastern, and Transcontinental and Western Air (TWA). Similarly, Brown had also helped give Pan American a monopoly on international routes.
The push to deregulate, or at least to reform the existing laws governing passenger carriers, was accelerated by President Jimmy Carter, who appointed economist and former professor Alfred Kahn, a vocal supporter of deregulation, to head the CAB. A second force to deregulate emerged from abroad. In 1977, Freddie Laker, a British entrepreneur who owned Laker Airways, created the Skytrain service, which offered extraordinarily cheap fares for transatlantic ﬂights. Laker’s offerings coincided with a boom in low-cost domestic ﬂights as the CAB eased some limitations on charter ﬂights, i.e., ﬂights offered by companies that do not actually own planes but leased them from the major airlines. The big air carriers responded by proposing their own lower fares. For example, American Airlines, the country’s second largest airline, obtained CAB approval for “SuperSaver” tickets.
All of these events proved to be favorable for large-scale deregulation. In November 1977, Congress formally deregulated air cargo. In late 1978, Congress passed the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978, legislation that had been principally authored by Senators Edward Kennedy and Howard Cannon. [Figure 1-11] There was stiff opposition to the bill—from the major airlines who feared free competition, from labor unions who feared nonunion employees, and from safety advocates who feared that safety would be sacriﬁced. Public support was, however, strong enough to pass the act. The act appeased the major airlines by offering generous subsidies and it pleased workers by offering high unemployment beneﬁts if they lost their jobs as a result. The most important effect of the act, whose laws were slowly phased in, was on the passenger market. For the ﬁrst time in 40 years, airlines could enter the market or (from 1981) expand their routes as they saw ﬁt. Airlines (from 1982) also had full freedom to set their fares. In 1984, the CAB was ﬁnally abolished since its primary duty of regulating the airline industry was no longer necessary.
Figure 1-11. President Jimmy Carter signs the Airline Deregulation Act in late 1978.
The Role of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
The FAA is empowered by regulations to promote aviation safety and establish safety standards for civil aviation. The FAA achieves these objectives under the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), which is the codiﬁcation of the general and permanent rules published by the executive departments and agencies of the United States Government. The regulations are divided into 50 different codes, called Titles, that represent broad areas subject to Federal regulation. FAA regulations are listed under Title 14, Aeronautics and Space, which encompasses all aspects of civil aviation from how to earn a pilot’s certiﬁcate to maintenance of an aircraft. Title 14 CFR Chapter 1, Federal Aviation Administration, is broken down into subchapters A through N as illustrated in Figure 1-12.
Figure 1-12. Overview of 14 CFR, available online free from the FAA, and for purchase through commercial sources.
For the pilot, certain parts of 14 CFR are more relevant than others. During ﬂight training, it is helpful for the pilot to become familiar with the parts and subparts that relate to ﬂight training and pilot certiﬁcation. For instance, 14 CFR part 61 pertains to the certiﬁcation of pilots, ﬂight instructors, and ground instructors. It also deﬁnes the eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, ﬂight proﬁciency, as well as training and testing requirements for each type of pilot certiﬁcate issued. 14 CFR part 91 provides guidance in the areas of general ﬂight rules, visual ﬂight rules (VFR), and instrument ﬂight rules (IFR), while 14 CFR part 43 covers aircraft maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alterations.
Primary Locations of the FAA
The FAA headquarters are in Washington, D.C., and there are nine regional ofﬁces strategically located across the United States. The agency’s two largest ﬁeld facilities are the Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center (MMAC) in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and the William J. Hughes Technical Center (WJHTC) in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Home to FAA training and logistics services, the MMAC provides a number of aviation safety-related and business support services. The WJHTC is the premier aviation research and development and test and evaluation facility in the country. The center’s programs include testing and evaluation in ATC, communication, navigation, airports, aircraft safety, and security. Furthermore, the WJHTC is active in long-range development of innovative aviation systems and concepts, development of new ATC equipment and software, and modiﬁcation of existing systems and procedures.
Flight Standards Service
Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service promotes safe air transportation by setting the standards for certiﬁcation and oversight of airmen, air operators, air agencies, and designees. It also promotes safety of ﬂight of civil aircraft and air commerce by:
- Accomplishing certiﬁcation, inspection, surveillance, investigation, and enforcement.
- Setting regulations and standards.
- Managing the system for registration of civil aircraft and all airmen records.
The focus of interaction between Flight Standards Service and the aviation community/general public is the Flight Standards District Ofﬁce (FSDO).
Flight Standards District Ofﬁce (FSDO)
The FAA has approximately 130 FSDOs. [Figure 1-13] These offices provide information and services for the aviation community. FSDO phone numbers are listed in the telephone directory under Government Ofﬁces, DOT, FAA. Another convenient method of ﬁnding a local ofﬁce is to use the FSDO locator available at: www.faa.gov/about/ofﬁce_org/headquarters_ofﬁces/avs/ofﬁces/afs/afs600.
Figure 1-13. Atlanta Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).
In addition to accident investigation and the enforcement of aviation regulations, the FSDO is also responsible for the certiﬁcation and surveillance of air carriers, air operators, ﬂight schools/training centers, and airmen including pilots and ﬂight instructors. Each FSDO is staffed by Aviation Safety Inspectors (ASIs) who play a key role in making the nation’s aviation system safe.
Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI)
The Aviation Safety Inspectors (ASIs) administer and enforce safety regulations and standards for the production, operation, maintenance, and/or modiﬁcation of aircraft used in civil aviation. They also specialize in conducting inspections of various aspects of the aviation system, such as aircraft and parts manufacturing, aircraft operation, aircraft airworthiness, and cabin safety. ASIs must complete a training program at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, which includes airman evaluation, and pilot testing techniques and procedures. ASIs also receive extensive on-the-job training and recurrent training on a regular basis. The FAA has approximately 3,700 inspectors located in its FSDO ofﬁces. All questions concerning pilot certiﬁcation (and/or requests for other aviation information or services) should be directed to the local FSDO.
FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam)
The FAA is dedicated to improving the safety of United States civilian aviation by conveying safety principles and practices through training, outreach, and education. The FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam) exempliﬁes this commitment. The FAASTeam has replaced the Aviation Safety Program (ASP), whose education of airmen on all types of safety subjects successfully reduced accidents. Its success led to its demise because the easy-to-ﬁx accident causes have been addressed. To take aviation safety one step further, Flight Standards Service created the FAASTeam, which is devoted to reducing aircraft accidents by using a coordinated effort to focus resources on elusive accident causes.
Each of the FAA’s nine regions has a Regional FAASTeam Ofﬁce dedicated to this new safety program and managed by the Regional FAASTeam Manager (RFM). The FAASTeam is “teaming” up with individuals and the aviation industry to create a uniﬁed effort against accidents and “tip” the safety culture in the right direction. To learn more about this effort to improve aviation safety, to take a course at their online learning center, or to join the FAASTeam, visit their web site at www.faasafety.gov/default.aspx.
Obtaining Assistance from the FAA
Information can be obtained from the FAA by phone, Internet/e-mail, or mail. To talk to the FAA toll-free 24 hours a day, call 1-866-TELL-FAA (1-866-835-5322). To visit the FAA’s web site, go to www.faa.gov. Individuals can also e-mail an FAA representative at a local FSDO ofﬁce by accessing the staff e-mail address available via the “Contact FAA” link at the bottom of the FAA home page. Letters can be sent to:
Federal Aviation Administration
800 Independence Ave, SW
Washington, DC 20591
FAA Reference Material
The FAA provides a variety of important reference material for the student, as well as the advanced civil aviation pilot. In addition to the regulations provided online by the FAA, several other publications are available to the user. Almost all reference material is available online at www.faa.gov in downloadable format. Commercial aviation publishers also provide published and online reference material to further aid the aviation pilot.
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) is the ofﬁcial guide to basic ﬂight information and ATC procedures for the aviation community ﬂying in the NAS of the United States. [Figure 1-14] An international version, containing parallel information, as well as speciﬁc information on international airports, is also available. The AIM also contains information of interest to pilots, such as health and medical facts, ﬂight safety, a pilot/controller glossary of terms used in the system, and information on safety, accidents, and reporting of hazards. This manual is offered for sale on a subscription basis or is available online at: http://bookstore.gpo.gov.
Figure 1-14. Aeronautical Information Manual.
Order forms are provided at the beginning of the manual or online and should be sent to the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Ofﬁce (GPO). The AIM is complemented by other operational publications, which are available via separate subscriptions or online.
Handbooks are developed to provide speciﬁc information about a particular topic that enhances training or understanding. The FAA publishes a variety of handbooks that generally fall into three categories: Aircraft, Aviation, and Examiners and Inspectors. [Figure 1-15] These handbooks can be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents or downloaded (www.faa.gov/regulations_policies). Aviation handbooks are also published by various commercial aviation companies. Aircraft ﬂight manuals commonly called Pilot Operating Handbooks (POH) are documents developed by the airplane manufacturer, approved by the FAA, and are speciﬁc to a particular make and model aircraft by serial number. This subject is covered in greater detail in Chapter 8, Flight Manuals and Other Documents, of this handbook. [Figure 1-16]
Figure 1-15. A few samples of the handbooks available to the public. Most are free of charge or can be downloaded from the FAA website.
Figure 1-16. Pilot Operating Handbooks from manufacturers.
Advisory Circulars (ACs)
Advisory circulars (ACs) provide a single, uniform, agency-wide system that the FAA uses to deliver advisory material to FAA customers, industry, the aviation community, and the public. An AC may be needed to:
- Provide an acceptable, clearly understood method for complying with a regulation.
- Standardize implementation of the regulation or harmonize implementation for the international aviation community.
- Resolve a general misunderstanding of a regulation.
- Respond to a request from some government entity, such as General Accounting Ofﬁce, NTSB, or the Ofﬁce of the Inspector General.
- Help the industry and FAA effectively implement a regulation.
- Explain requirements and limits of an FAA grant program.
- Expand on standards needed to promote aviation safety, including the safe operation of airports.
There are three parts to an AC number, as in 25-42C. The ﬁrst part of the number identiﬁes the subject matter area of the AC and corresponds to the appropriate 14 CFR part. For example, an AC on certiﬁcation: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors is numbered as AC 61-65E. Since ACs are numbered sequentially within each subject area, the second part of the number beginning with the dash identiﬁes this sequence. The third part of the number is a letter assigned by the originating ofﬁce and shows the revision sequence if an AC is revised. The ﬁrst version of an AC does not have a revision letter. In Figure 1-17, this is the ﬁfth revision, as designated by the “E.”
Figure 1-17. Example of an Advisory Circular.
The FAA, in concert with other government agencies, orchestrates the publication and changes to publications that are key to safe ﬂight. Figure 1-18 illustrates some publications a pilot uses.
Figure 1-18. From left to right, a sectional VFR chart, IFR chart, and A/FD with a sample of a page from that directory.
Pilot and Aeronautical Information
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
Time-critical aeronautical information, which is of either a temporary nature or not sufﬁciently known in advance to permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications, receives immediate dissemination via the National Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System. NOTAMs contain current notices to airmen, which are considered essential to the safety of flight, as well as supplemental data affecting other operational publications. NOTAM information is classified into two categories: NOTAM (D) or distant and Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAMs.
NOTAM (D) information is disseminated for all navigational facilities that are part of the NAS, all public use airports, seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). NOTAM (D) information now includes such data as taxiway closures, personnel and equipment near or crossing runways, and airport lighting aids that do not affect instrument approach criteria, such as visual approach slope indicator (VASI).
FDC NOTAMs contain such things as amendments to published Instrument Approach Procedures (IAPs) and other current aeronautical charts. They are also used to advertise temporary ﬂight restrictions caused by such things as natural disasters or large-scale public events that may generate a congestion of air trafﬁc over a site.
NOTAMs are available in printed form through subscription from the Superintendent of Documents, from an FSS, or online at The Pilot Web Site (http://pilotweb.nas.faa.gov/distribution/atcscc.html), which provides access to current NOTAM information. [Figure 1-19]
Figure 1-19. A sample of NOTAM information available to the public. Most are free of charge or can be downloaded from the FAA website.
Safety Program Airmen Notiﬁcation System (SPANS)
The FAA recently launched the Safety Program Airmen Notiﬁcation System (SPANS), an online event notiﬁcation system that provides timely and easy-to-assess seminar and event information notiﬁcation for airmen. The SPANS system is taking the place of the current paper based mail system. This transition will provide better service to airmen while reducing costs for the FAA. Anyone can search the SPANS system and register for events. To read more about SPANS, visit www.faasafety.gov/SPANS/default.aspx.
Aircraft Types and Categories
An ultralight aircraft [Figure 1-20] is referred to as a vehicle because the FAA does not govern it if it:
- Is used or intended to be used by a single occupant.
- Is used for recreation or sport purposes.
- Does not have an airworthiness certiﬁcate.
- If unpowered, weighs less than 155 pounds.
- If powered, weighs less than 254 pounds empty weight, excluding ﬂoats and safety devices that are intended for deployment in a potentially catastrophic situation.
- Has a fuel capacity not exceeding 5 gallons.
- Is not capable of more than 55 knots calibrated airspeed at full power in level ﬂight.
- Has a power-off stall speed, which does not exceed 24 knots calibrated airspeed.
Figure 1-20. A typical ultralight vehicle, which weighs less than 254 pounds.
Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) Category
In 2004, the FAA approved a new pilot certiﬁcate and aircraft category program to allow individuals to join the aviation community by reducing training requirements that affect the overall cost of learning to ﬂy. The Sport Pilot Certiﬁcate was created for pilots ﬂying light-weight, simple aircraft and offers limited privileges. The category of aircraft called the Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) includes Airplane (Land/Sea), Gyroplane, Airship, Balloon, Weight-Shift Control (Land/Sea), Glider, and Powered Parachute. [Figure 1-21]
Figure 1-21. Some examples of LSA (from top to bottom: gyroplane, weight-shift control, and a powered parachute).
In order for an aircraft to fall in the Light Sport Category, it must meet the following criteria:
- The maximum gross takeoff weight may not exceed 1,320 pounds, or 1,430 pounds for seaplanes. Lighter-than-air maximum gross weight may not be more than 660 pounds.
- The maximum stall speed may not exceed 45 knots, and the inﬂight maximum speed in level ﬂight with maximum continuous power is no greater than 120 knots.
- Seating is restricted to single or two-seat conﬁguration only.
- The powerplant may be only a single, reciprocating engine (if powered), but may include rotary or diesel engines.
- The landing gear must be ﬁxed, except gliders or those aircraft intended for operation on water.
- The aircraft can be manufactured and sold ready-to-ﬂy under a new special LSA category, and certiﬁcation must meet industry consensus standards. The aircraft may be used for sport, recreation, ﬂight training, and aircraft rental.
- The aircraft will have an FAA registration N-number and may be operated at night if the aircraft is properly equipped and the pilot holds at least a private pilot certiﬁcate with a minimum of a third-class medical.
The type of intended ﬂying will inﬂuence what type of pilot’s certiﬁcate is required. Eligibility, training, experience, and testing requirements differ depending on the type of certiﬁcates sought. [Figure 1-22]
Figure 1-22. Front side (top) and back side (bottom) of an airman certificate issued by the FAA.
To become a sport pilot, the student pilot is required to have the following hours depending upon the aircraft:
- Airplane: 20 hours
- Powered Parachute: 12 hours
- Weight-Shift Control (Trikes): 20 hours
- Glider: 10 hours
- Rotorcraft (gyroplane only): 20 hours
- Lighter-Than-Air: 20 hours (airship) or 7 hours (balloon)
To earn a Sport Pilot Certiﬁcate, one must:
- Be at least 16 to become a student sport pilot (14 for glider).
- Be at least 17 to test for a sport pilot certiﬁcate (16 for gliders).
- Be able to read, write, and understand English.
- Hold a current and valid driver’s license as evidence of medical eligibility.
To become a recreational pilot, one must:
- Be at least 17 years old (16 to be a private glider pilot or be rated for free ﬂight in a balloon.)
- Be able to read, write, speak and understand the English language
- Pass the required knowledge test
- Meet the aeronautical experience requirements
- A logbook endorsement from an instructor
- Pass the required practical test
- Third-class medical certiﬁcate issued under part 14 CFR part 67, except for gliders and balloons—medical eligibility not required
As a recreational pilot, cross-country ﬂight is limited to a 50 NM range from departure airport but is permitted with additional training per 14 CFR section 61.101(c). Additional limitations include ﬂight during the day, and no ﬂying in airspace where communications with air trafﬁc control are required.
The aeronautical experience requirements for a recreational pilot license
- 30 hours of ﬂight time including at least:
- 15 hours of dual instruction
- 2 hours of enroute training
- 3 hours in preparation for the practical test
- 3 hours of solo ﬂight
A private pilot is one who ﬂies for pleasure or personal business without accepting compensation for ﬂying except in some very limited, speciﬁc circumstances. The Private Pilot Certiﬁcate is the certiﬁcate held by the majority of active pilots. It allows command of any aircraft (subject to appropriate ratings) for any noncommercial purpose, and gives almost unlimited authority to ﬂy under VFR. Passengers may be carried, and ﬂight in furtherance of a business is permitted; however, a private pilot may not be compensated in any way for services as a pilot, although passengers can pay a pro rata share of ﬂight expenses, such as fuel or rental costs. If training under 14 CFR part 61, experience requirements include at least 40 hours of piloting time, including 20 hours of ﬂight with an instructor and 10 hours of solo ﬂight. [Figure 1-23]
Figure 1-23. A typical aircraft a private pilot might fly.
A commercial pilot may be compensated for ﬂying. Training for the certificate focuses on a better understanding of aircraft systems and a higher standard of airmanship. The Commercial Certiﬁcate itself does not allow a pilot to ﬂy in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), and commercial pilots without an instrument rating are restricted to daytime ﬂight within 50 nautical miles (NM) when ﬂying for hire.
A commercial airplane pilot must be able to operate a complex airplane, as a specific number of hours of complex (or turbine-powered) aircraft time are among the prerequisites, and at least a portion of the practical examination is performed in a complex aircraft. A complex aircraft must have retractable landing gear, movable ﬂaps, and a controllable pitch propeller. See 14 CFR part 61, section 61.31(c) for additional information. [Figure 1-24]
Figure 1-24. A complex aircraft.
Airline Transport Pilot
The airline transport pilot (ATP) is tested to the highest level of piloting ability. The ATP Certiﬁcate is a prerequisite for acting as a pilot in command (PIC) of scheduled airline operations. The minimum pilot experience is 1,500 hours of ﬂight time. In addition, the pilot must be at least 23 years of age, be able to read, write, speak, and understand the English language, and be “of good moral standing.” [Figure 1-25]
Figure 1-25. Type of aircraft flown by an airline transport pilot.
Selecting a Flight School
Selection of a ﬂight school is an important consideration in the ﬂight training process. FAA-approved ﬂight schools, noncertificated flying schools, and independent flight instructors conduct ﬂight training in the United States. All ﬂight training is conducted under the auspices of the FAA following the regulations outlined in either 14 CFR part 141 or 61. 14 CFR part 141 ﬂight schools are certiﬁcated by the FAA. Application for certiﬁcation is voluntary and the school must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment, maintenance, facilities, and teach an established curriculum, which includes a training course outline (TCO) approved by the FAA. The certiﬁcated schools may qualify for a ground school rating and a ﬂight school rating. In addition, the school may be authorized to give its graduates practical (ﬂight) tests and knowledge (computer administered written) tests. AC 140-2, as amended, FAA Certiﬁcated Pilot Schools Directory, lists certiﬁcated ground and ﬂight schools and the pilot training courses each school offers. AC 140-2, as amended, can be found online at the FAA’s Regulations and Guidance Library located on the FAA’s web site at www.faa.gov.
Enrollment in a 14 CFR part 141 ﬂight school ensures quality and continuity, and offers a structured approach to ﬂight training because these facilities must document the training curriculum and have their ﬂight courses approved by the FAA. These strictures allow 14 CFR part 141 schools to complete certiﬁcates and ratings in fewer ﬂight hours, which can mean a savings on the cost of ﬂight training for the student pilot. For example, the minimum requirement for a Private Pilot Certiﬁcate is 35 hours in a part 141-certiﬁcated school and 40 hours in part 61 schools. (This difference may be insigniﬁcant for a Private Pilot Certiﬁcate because the national average indicates most pilots require 60 to 75 hours of ﬂight training.)
Many excellent ﬂight schools ﬁnd it impractical to qualify for the FAA part 141 certiﬁcates and are referred to as part 61 schools. 14 CFR part 61 outlines certiﬁcate and rating requirements for pilot certiﬁcation through noncertiﬁcated schools and individual ﬂight instructors. It also states what knowledge-based training must be covered and how much ﬂight experience is required for each certiﬁcate and rating. Flight schools and ﬂight instructors who train must adhere to the statutory requirements and train pilots to the standards found in 14 CFR part 61.
One advantage of ﬂight training under 14 CFR part 61 is its ﬂexibility. Flight lessons can be tailored to the individual student, because 14 CFR part 61 dictates the required minimum ﬂight experience and knowledge-based training necessary to gain a speciﬁc pilot’s license, but it does not stipulate how the training is to be organized. This ﬂexibility can also be a disadvantage because a ﬂight instructor who fails to organize the ﬂight training can cost a student pilot time and expense through repetitious training. One way for a student pilot to avoid this problem is to insure the ﬂight instructor has a well-documented training syllabus.
How To Find a Reputable Flight Program
To obtain information about pilot training, contact the local FSDO, which maintains a current ﬁle on all schools within its district. The choice of a ﬂight school depends on what type of certiﬁcate is sought, whether an individual wishes to ﬂy as a sport pilot or wishes to pursue a career as a professional pilot. Another consideration is the amount of time that can be devoted to training. Ground and ﬂight training should be obtained as regularly and frequently as possible because this assures maximum retention of instruction and the achievement of requisite proﬁciency.
Do not make the determination based on ﬁnancial concerns alone, because the quality of training is very important. Prior to making a ﬁnal decision, visit the schools under consideration and talk with management, instructors, and students.
Be inquisitive and proactive when searching for a ﬂight school, do some homework, and develop a checklist of questions by talking to pilots and reading articles in ﬂight magazines. The checklist should include questions about aircraft reliability and maintenance practices, questions for current students such as whether or not there is a safe, clean aircraft available when they are scheduled to ﬂy.
Questions for the training facility should be aimed at determining if the instruction ﬁts available personal time. What are the school’s operating hours? Does the facility have dedicated classrooms available for ground training required by the FAA? Is there an area available for preﬂight brieﬁngs, postﬂight debrieﬁngs, and critiques? Are these rooms private in nature in order to provide a nonthreatening environment in which the instructor can explain the content and outcome of the ﬂight without making the student feel self-conscious?
Examine the facility before committing to any ﬂight training. Evaluate the answers on the checklist, and then take time to think things over before making a decision. This proactive approach to choosing a ﬂight school will ensure a student pilot contracts with a ﬂight school or ﬂight instructor best suited to individual needs.
How To Choose a Certiﬁcated Flight Instructor (CFI)
Whether an individual chooses to train under 14 CFR part 141 or part 61, the key to an effective ﬂight program is the quality of the ground and ﬂight training received from the CFI. The ﬂight instructor assumes total responsibility for training an individual to meet the standards required for certiﬁcation within an ever-changing operating environment.
A CFI should possess an understanding of the learning process, knowledge of the fundamentals of teaching, and the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot. During the certiﬁcation process, a ﬂight instructor applicant is tested on the practical application of these skills in speciﬁc teaching situations. The ﬂight instructor is crucial to the scenario-based training program endorsed by the FAA. He or she is trained to function in the learning environment as an advisor and guide for the learner. The duties, responsibilities, and authority of the CFI include the following:
- Orient the student to the scenario-based training system.
- Help the student become a conﬁdent planner and inﬂight manager of each ﬂight and a critical evaluator of their own performance.
- Help the student understand the knowledge requirements present in real world applications.
- Diagnose learning difﬁculties and helping the student overcome them.
- Evaluate student progress and maintain appropriate records.
- Provide continuous review of student learning.
Should a student pilot ﬁnd the selected CFI is not training in a manner conducive for learning, or the student and CFI do not have compatible schedules, the student pilot should ﬁnd another CFI. Choosing the right CFI is important because the quality of instruction and the knowledge and skills acquired from this ﬂight instructor affect a student pilot’s entire ﬂying career.
The Student Pilot
The ﬁrst step in becoming a pilot is to select a type of aircraft. FAA rules for getting a pilot’s certiﬁcate differ depending on the type of aircraft ﬂown. Individuals can choose among airplanes, gyroplanes, weight-shift, helicopters, powered parachutes, gliders, balloons, or airships. A pilot does not need a certiﬁcate to ﬂy ultralight vehicles.
A student pilot is one who is being trained by an instructor pilot for his or her ﬁrst full certiﬁcate, and is permitted to ﬂy alone (solo) under speciﬁc, limited circumstances. Upon request, an FAA-authorized aviation medical examiner (AME) will issue a combined medical certiﬁcate and Student Pilot Certiﬁcate after completion of a physical examination. Student Pilot Certiﬁcates may be issued by an FAA inspector or an FAA-designated pilot examiner. To be eligible for a Student Pilot’s Certiﬁcate, an individual must be:
- Be 16 years old (14 years old to pilot a glider or balloon).
- Be able to read, write, speak, and understand English.
- Hold a current Third-Class Medical Certiﬁcate (or for glider or balloon, certify no medical defect exists that would prevent piloting a balloon or glider).
Medical Certiﬁcation Requirements
The second step in becoming a pilot is to obtain a medical certiﬁcate and Student Pilot’s Certiﬁcate if the choice of aircraft is an airplane, helicopter, gyroplane, or airship. [Figure 1-26] (The FAA suggests the individual get a medical certiﬁcate before beginning ﬂight training to avoid the expense of ﬂight training that cannot be continued due to a medical condition.) Balloon or glider pilots do not need a medical certiﬁcate, but do need to write a statement certifying that no medical defect exists that would prevent them from piloting a balloon or glider. The new sport pilot category does not require a medical examination; a driver’s license can be used as proof of medical competence. Applicants who fail to meet certain requirements or who have physical disabilities which might limit, but not prevent, their acting as pilots, should contact the nearest FAA ofﬁce.
Figure 1-26. A Third-Class Medical Certificate/Student Pilot Certificate.
A medical certiﬁcate is obtained by passing a physical examination administered by a doctor who is an FAA-authorized AME. There are approximately 6,000 FAA-authorized AMEs in the nation. Medical certiﬁcates are designated as ﬁrst class, second class, or third class. Generally, ﬁrst class is designed for the airline transport pilot; second class for the commercial pilot; and third class for the student, recreational, and private pilot. A Student Pilot Certiﬁcate is issued by an AME at the time of the student’s ﬁrst medical examination. This certiﬁcate allows an individual who is being trained by a ﬂight instructor to ﬂy alone (solo) under speciﬁc, limited circumstances and must be carried with the student pilot while exercising solo ﬂight privileges. The student pilot certiﬁcate is only required when exercising solo ﬂight privileges. The student certiﬁcate is valid until the last day of the month, 24 months after it was issued.
Student Pilot Solo Requirements
Once a student has accrued sufﬁcient training and experience, a CFI can endorse the student’s certiﬁcate to authorize limited solo ﬂight in a speciﬁc type (make and model) of aircraft. A student pilot may not carry passengers, ﬂy in furtherance of a business, or operate an aircraft outside of the various endorsements provided by the ﬂight instructor. There is no minimum aeronautical knowledge or experience requirement for the issuance of a student pilot certiﬁcate other than the medical requirements for the class of medical certiﬁcate the student certiﬁcate is based upon. There are, however, minimum aeronautical knowledge and experience requirements for student pilots to solo.
Becoming a Pilot
The course of instruction a student pilot follows depends on the type of certiﬁcate sought. It should include the ground and ﬂight training necessary to acquire the knowledge and skills required to safely and efﬁciently function as a certiﬁcated pilot in the selected category and class of aircraft. The speciﬁc knowledge and skill areas for each category and class of aircraft are outlined in 14 CFR part 61. Eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, proficiency, and aeronautical requirements can be found in 14 CFR part 61, Certiﬁcation: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors.
- Recreational Pilot, see subpart D
- Private Pilot, see subpart E
- Sport Pilot, see subpart J
The knowledge-based portion of training is obtained through FAA handbooks such as this one, textbooks, and other sources of training and testing materials which are available in print form from the Superintendent of Documents, GPO, and online at the Regulatory Support Division: www.faa.gov/about/ofﬁce_org/headquarters_ofﬁces/avs/ofﬁces/afs/afs600.
The CFI may also use commercial publications as a source of study materials, especially for aircraft categories where government materials are limited. A student pilot should follow the ﬂight instructor’s advice on what and when to study. Planning a deﬁnite study program and following it as closely as possible will help in scoring well on the knowledge test. Haphazard or disorganized study habits usually result in an unsatisfactory score.
In addition to learning aeronautical knowledge, such as the principles of ﬂight, a student pilot is also required to gain skill in ﬂight maneuvers. The selected category and class of aircraft determines the type of ﬂight skills and number of ﬂight hours to be obtained. There are four steps involved in learning a ﬂight maneuver:
- The CFI introduces and demonstrates ﬂight maneuver to the student.
- The CFI talks student pilot through the maneuver.
- The student pilot practices the maneuver under CFI supervision.
- The CFI authorizes the student pilot to practice the maneuver solo.
Once the student pilot has shown proﬁciency in the required knowledge areas, ﬂight maneuvers, and accrued the required amount of ﬂight hours, the CFI endorses the student pilot logbook, which allows the student pilot to take the written and practical exams for pilot certiﬁcation.
Knowledge and Skill Examinations
The knowledge test is the computer portion of the exams taken to obtain pilot certiﬁcation. The test contains questions of the objective, multiple-choice type. This testing method conserves the applicant’s time, eliminates any element of individual judgment in determining grades, and saves time in scoring.
If pursuing a recreational pilot or private pilot certiﬁcate, it is important to become familiar with 14 CFR part 61, section 61.23, Medical Certiﬁcates: Requirements and Duration; 14 CFR section 61.35, Knowledge Test: Prerequisites and Passing Grades; and 14 CFR section 61.83, Eligibility Requirements for Student Pilot, for detailed information pertaining to prerequisites and eligibility.
If pursuing a recreational pilot certiﬁcate, it is important to review 14 CFR section 61.96, Applicability and Eligibility Requirements: General, for additional detailed information pertaining to eligibility; and if pursuing a private pilot certiﬁcate, 14 CFR section 61.103, Eligibility Requirements: General, contains additional detailed information pertaining to eligibility. Sample test questions can be downloaded from Airmen Knowledge Test Questions: www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_questions/.
Each applicant must register to take the test, and provide proper identiﬁcation and authorization proving eligibility to take a particular FAA test. The option to take an untimed sample test will be offered. The actual test is time limited, but most applicants have sufﬁcient time to complete and review the test. Upon completion of the knowledge test, the applicant receives an Airman Knowledge Test Report that reﬂects the score and is embossed with the testing center’s seal. To pass, a minimum score of 70 must be attained.
When To Take the Examination
The knowledge test is more meaningful to the applicant and more likely to result in a satisfactory grade if it is taken after beginning the ﬂight portion of the training. Therefore, the FAA recommends the knowledge test be taken after the student pilot has completed a solo cross-country ﬂight. The operational knowledge gained by this experience can be used to the student’s advantage in the knowledge test. The student pilot’s CFI is the best person to determine when the applicant is ready to take the knowledge exam.
Where To Take the Examination
The FAA has hundreds of designated computer testing centers worldwide that administer FAA knowledge tests. These testing centers offer the full range of airman knowledge tests. Applicants will be charged a fee for the administration of FAA knowledge tests. A complete list of test centers, their locations and phone numbers can be downloaded at “Airmen Certiﬁcation Frequently Asked Questions” located at www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_questions/ or www.faa.gov/licenses_certiﬁcates/airmen_certiﬁcation/airmen_FAQ/.
An applicant can also contact the local FSDO to obtain this information. If the student pilot chooses a 14 CFR part 141 ﬂight school with test examining authority, the school will administer the knowledge test during the curriculum.
The FAA has developed PTSs for FAA pilot certiﬁcates and associated ratings. [Figure 1-27] These practical tests are administered by FAA ASIs and DPEs. 14 CFR part 61 speciﬁes the areas of operation in which knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the applicant. Since the FAA requires all practical tests be conducted in accordance with the appropriate PTS, and the policies set forth in the Introduction section of the PTS book, the pilot applicant should become familiar with this book during training.
Figure 1-27. Examples of Practical Test Standards.
The PTS book is a testing document and not intended to be a training syllabus. An appropriately rated ﬂight instructor is responsible for training the pilot applicant to acceptable standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and maneuvers. Descriptions of tasks and information on how to perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in reference and teaching documents such as this handbook. A list of reference documents is contained in the Introduction section of each PTS book. Copies may obtained by:
- Downloading from the FAA website: www.faa.gov.
- Purchase of print copies from the GPO, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, or via their ofﬁcial online bookstore at www.access.gpo.gov.
The ﬂight proﬁciency maneuvers listed in 14 CFR part 61 are the standard skill requirements for certiﬁcation. They are outlined in the PTS as “areas of operation.” These are phases of the practical test arranged in a logical sequence within the standard. They begin with preﬂight preparation and end with postﬂight procedures. Each area of operation contains “tasks,” which are comprised of knowledge areas, ﬂight procedures, and/or ﬂight maneuvers appropriate to the area of operation. The candidate is required to demonstrate knowledge and proficiency in all tasks for the original issuance of all pilot certiﬁcates.
When To Take the Practical Exam
14 CFR part 61 establishes the ground school and ﬂight experience requirements for the type of certiﬁcation and aircraft selected. However, the CFI best determines when an applicant is qualiﬁed for the practical test. A practice practical test is an important step in the ﬂight training process.
The applicant will be asked to present the following documentation:
- FAA Form 8710-1 (8710.11 for sport pilot applicants), Application for an Airman Certiﬁcate and/or Rating, with the ﬂight instructor’s recommendation.
- An Airman Knowledge Test Report with a satisfactory grade.
- A medical certificate (not required for glider or balloon), and a student pilot certiﬁcate endorsed by a ﬂight instructor for solo, solo cross-country (airplane and rotorcraft), and for the make and model aircraft to be used for the practical test (driver’s license or medical certiﬁcate for sport pilot applicants).
- The pilot log book records.
- A graduation certiﬁcate from an FAA-approved school (if applicable).
The applicant must provide an airworthy aircraft with equipment relevant to the areas of operation required for the practical test. He or she will also be asked to produce and explain the:
- Aircraft’s registration certiﬁcate
- Aircraft’s airworthiness certiﬁcate
- Aircraft’s operating limitations or FAA-approved aircraft ﬂight manual (if required)
- Aircraft equipment list
- Required weight and balance data
- Maintenance records
- Applicable airworthiness directives (ADs)
For a detailed explanation of the required pilot maneuvers and performance standards, refer to the PTSs pertaining to the type of certiﬁcation and aircraft selected. These standards may be downloaded free of charge from the FAA: www.faa.gov. They can also be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents or GPO bookstores. Most airport ﬁxed-base operators and ﬂight schools carry a variety of government publications and charts, as well as commercially published materials.
Who Administers the FAA Practical Examination?
Due to the varied responsibilities of the FSDOs, practical tests are usually given by DPEs. An applicant should schedule the practical test by appointment to avoid conﬂicts and wasted time. A list of examiner names can be obtained from the local FSDO. Since a DPE serves without pay from the government for conducting practical tests and processing the necessary reports, the examiner is allowed to charge a reasonable fee. There is no charge for the practical test when conducted by an FAA inspector.
Role of the Certiﬁcated Flight Instructor
To become a CFI, a pilot must meet the provisions of 14 CFR part 61. The FAA places full responsibility for student ﬂight training on the shoulders of the CFI, who is the cornerstone of aviation safety. It is the job of the ﬂight instructor to train the student pilot in all the knowledge areas and teach the skills necessary for the student pilot to operate safely and competently as a certiﬁcated pilot in the NAS. The training will include airmanship skills, pilot judgment and decision-making, and good operating practices.
A pilot training program depends on the quality of the ground and ﬂight instruction the student pilot receives. The ﬂight instructor must possess a thorough understanding of the learning process, knowledge of the fundamentals of teaching, and the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot. He or she uses a syllabus and teaching style that embodies the “building block” method of instruction. In this method, the student progresses from the known to the unknown via a course of instruction laid out in such a way that each new maneuver embodies the principles involved in the performance of maneuvers previously learned. Thus, with the introduction of each new subject, the student not only learns a new principle or technique, but also broadens his or her application of those principles or techniques previously learned.
Insistence on correct techniques and procedures from the beginning of training by the ﬂight instructor ensures that the student pilot develops proper ﬂying habit patterns. Any deﬁciencies in the maneuvers or techniques must immediately be emphasized and corrected. A ﬂight instructor serves as a role model for the student pilot who observes the ﬂying habits of his or her ﬂight instructor during ﬂight instruction, as well as when the instructor conducts other pilot operations. Thus, the ﬂight instructor becomes a model of ﬂying proﬁciency for the student who, consciously or unconsciously, attempts to imitate the instructor. For this reason, a ﬂight instructor should observe recognized safety practices, as well as regulations during all ﬂight operations.
The student pilot who enrolls in a pilot training program commits considerable time, effort, and expense to achieve a pilot certiﬁcate. Students often judge the effectiveness of the ﬂight instructor and the success of the pilot training program based on their ability to pass the requisite FAA practical test. A competent ﬂight instructor stresses to the student that practical tests are a sampling of pilot ability compressed into a short period of time. The goal of a ﬂight instructor is to train the “total” pilot.
Role of the Designated Pilot Examiner
The DPE plays an important role in the FAA’s mission of promoting aviation safety by administering FAA practical tests for pilot and Flight Instructor Certiﬁcates and associated ratings. Although administering these tests is a responsibility of the ASI, the FAA’s highest priority is making air travel safer by inspecting aircraft that ﬂy in the United States. To satisfy the need for pilot testing and certiﬁcation services, the FAA delegates certain of these responsibilities to private individuals who are not FAA employees.
Appointed in accordance with 14 CFR section 183.23, a DPE is an individual who meets the qualiﬁcation requirements of the Pilot Examiner’s Handbook, FAA Order 8710.3, and who:
- Is technically qualiﬁed.
- Holds all pertinent category, class, and type ratings for each aircraft related to their designation.
- Meets requirements of 14 CFR part 61, sections 61.56, 61.57, and 61.58, as appropriate.
- Is current and qualiﬁed to act as PIC of each aircraft for which he or she is authorized.
- Maintains at least a Third-Class Medical Certiﬁcate, if required.
- Maintains a current Flight Instructor Certiﬁcate, if required.
Designated to perform specific pilot certification tasks on behalf of the FAA, a DPE may charge a reasonable fee. Generally, a DPE’s authority is limited to accepting applications and conducting practical tests leading to the issuance of speciﬁc pilot certiﬁcates and/or ratings. The majority of FAA practical tests at the private and commercial pilot levels are administered by DPEs.
DPE candidates must have good industry reputations for professionalism, integrity, a demonstrated willingness to serve the public, and adhere to FAA policies and procedures in certiﬁcation matters. The FAA expects the DPE to administer practical tests with the same degree of professionalism, using the same methods, procedures, and standards as an FAA ASI.
The FAA has entered the second century of civil aviation as a robust government organization and is taking full advantage of technology, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite technology to enhance the safety of civil aviation. The Internet has also become an important tool in promoting aviation safety and providing around-the-clock resources for the aviation community. Handbooks, regulations, standards, references, and online courses are now available at the FAA website.
In keeping with the FAA’s belief that safety is a learned behavior, the FAA offers many courses and seminars to enhance air safety. The FAA puts the burden of instilling safe ﬂying habits on the ﬂight instructor, who should follow basic ﬂight safety practices and procedures in every ﬂight operation he or she undertakes with a student pilot. Operational safety practices include, but are not limited to, collision avoidance procedures consisting of proper scanning techniques, use of checklists, runway incursion avoidance, positive transfer of controls, and workload management. These safety practices will be discussed more fully within this handbook. Safe ﬂight also depends on Scenario-Based Training (SBT) that teaches the student pilot how to respond in different ﬂight situations. The FAA has incorporated these techniques along with decision-making methods, such as Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM), risk management, and Crew Resource Management (CRM), which are covered more completely in Chapter 17, Aeronautical Decision-Making.