Main The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military..
The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military HistoryGregory Fremont-Barnes
In three extraordinarily rich volumes, The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars captures the full sweep and legacy of the transformation of Europe from 1792 to 1815. Its nearly 900 alphabetically organized, fully cross-referenced entries provide students and general readers with vivid biographies of politicians, sovereigns, and commanders; accounts of battles, weaponry, and diplomatic affairs; insights into the art, music, and culture of the times; and much more.
Unlike other works on the subject, this encyclopedia combines coverage of Napoleon's rule with that of the crucial Revolutionary years in France that set the stage for his rise to power. It includes contributions from the most wide-ranging group of international experts ever assembled for a work on this era. Students will see the full continent-wide impact of France's evolution from aristocracy to democracy to military autocracy and explore the effects of nationalism, empire-building, industrialization, and international conflict, which resonate with more relevance today than ever.
T HE E NCYCLOPEDIA the OF French Revolutionary Napoleonic Wars and A Political, Social, and Military History T HE E NCYCLOPEDIA the OF French Revolutionary Napoleonic Wars and A Political, Social, and Military History VOLUME THREE Entries R–Z Primary Source Documents Gregory Fremont-Barnes, Editor Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado Oxford, United Kingdom Copyright 2006 by ABC-CLIO, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The encyclopedia of the French revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars : a political, social, and military history / editor, Gregory Fremont-Barnes. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-85109-646-9 (hard cover : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-85109-651-5 (ebook) 1. First Coalition, War of the, 1792–1797—Encyclopedias. 2. Second Coalition, War of the, 1798–1801—Encyclopedias. 3. France—History—Revolution, 1789–1799— Encyclopedias. 4. Napoleonic Wars, 1800–1815—Encyclopedias. 5. France—History, Military—1789–1815—Encyclopedias. 6. Europe—History—1789–1815— Encyclopedias. I. Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. DC220.E53 2006 944.0403—dc22 2006019409 08 07 06 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook. Visit abc-clio.com for details. ABC-CLIO, Inc. 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116–1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Manufactured in the United States of America Submissions Editor Project Assistant Production Editor Editorial Assistant File Management Coordinator Map Production Production Manager Media Image Coordinator Media Editor Media Manager Typesetting and Interior Design Alexander Mikaberidze Wendy Roseth Martha Ripley Gray Alisha L. Martinez Paula Gerard George Barile, Accurate Art, Inc.; George Zirfas, Chez D’Art, Inc. Don Schmidt Ellen Brenna Dougherty Ellen Rasmussen Caroline Price Andrew Berry, Letra Libre, Inc. Contents VOLUME ONE Entries A–F Preface and Acknowledgments, vii Introduction by Charles J. Esdaile, xv About the Editor, xix Advisory Board, xx List of Entries, xxi List of Maps, xxix Key to Military Map Symbols, xxxi Chronology, xxxiii Glossary of Military Terms, xliii Glossary of Naval Terms, xlvii Contextual Essays, 1 Entries A–F, 49 Index, I-1 VOLUME TWO Entries G–Q List of Entries, vii List of Maps, xv Key to Military Map Symbols, xvii Chronology, xix Glossary of Military Terms, xxix Glossary of Naval Terms, xxxiii Entries G–Q, 397 Index, I-1 VOLUME THREE Entries R–Z List of Entries, vii List of Maps, xv Key to Military Map Symbols, xvii Chronology, xix Glossary of Military Terms, xxix Glossary of Naval Terms, xxxiii Entries R–Z, 805 Primary Source Documents, 1115 Bibliography, 1165 List of Contributors, 1211 Index, I-1 v Preface and Acknowledgments have limits and battle became a brutal contest for a decisive result rather than a distasteful measure of last resort. If military technology had changed little in the preceding century, the end to which it was applied unmistakably had. For these reasons, among many others, the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars continue to fascinate students, scholars, and a respectable portion of the public alike. My motives in preparing this encyclopedia have been numerous, including a desire to produce a useful work of reference while the bicentennial of so many seminal events is now heightening both public and scholarly interest in this period; to present a much more thorough coverage of the conflict than has been possible in existing singlevolume dictionaries and encyclopedias; to provide a resource that includes exhaustive listings of the vast and ever-expanding literature on the subject; and to bring together the wider social, cultural, scientific, and economic aspects of the period in order to place the military conflict into proper perspective. However ambitious my intentions when this project commenced, I soon discovered that a work of this size can neither be assembled seamlessly nor present facts—not least troop strengths and losses—with definitive accuracy. If Cambronne took pause at the prospect of imminent death (cruel fate, in the event, left him merely wounded), at least he was spared the daunting prospect of editing a work of some 980,000 words. Still, it has been, for the most part, a labor of love, for I have been fortunate in having been able to draw upon the expertise of contributors— many of them leading authorities in their particular fields—from around the world, including the United States, Canada, Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Poland, Russia, Australia, and elsewhere. Their efficiency and dedication ensured that mercifully few were the moments when I felt myself struggling to cross an editorial Berezina, with howling Cossacks at my heels on one side of the icy river and, worse still, imminent deadlines looming on the other. pocryphal though the story may be, it has long been asserted that when, at the close of the Battle of Waterloo, General Cambronne, commander of Napoleon’s Imperial Guard, found himself confined in a square of grenadiers and surrounded at close quarters by British troops, he answered the summons to surrender with a declaration as eloquent as it was defiant: “The Guard dies but does not surrender!” Other accounts dismiss this as sentimental nonsense, insisting that he merely cried out a simple expletive. Perhaps it matters little to which version of events one ascribes the truth, for the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars produced so many instances of heroism, folly, triumph, and tragedy that one may be forgiven for regarding the characters and events of the time as somehow larger than life. Indeed, the extraordinary and undying appeal of the subject is easily explained, for it was an age when soldiers, resplendent in ornate uniforms, still stood shoulder to shoulder in the firing line, or fought on horseback, wielding sword, saber, or lance. The impersonal era of the “invisible battlefield” had not yet dawned; a soldier in 1815 usually confronted his opponent at less than a hundred yards’ distance—and often hand-to-hand. He could even trace the path of a round shot, emerging from the smoke of the cannon whence it came, bounding toward him. It was an age when great literature and great music flourished; when empires could be vanquished in a few short months, only to rise again to renew the struggle a few years later; an age when a single day’s encounter—as at Trafalgar or Waterloo—could literally change the course of history. It was an age when the snows of Russia could expose the vulnerability of the greatest commander of his—and perhaps of every other—time and reduce his army of gargantuan proportions to a shadow of its former self. It was an age when new principles and ideologies—some enthusiastically welcomed, others detested—were spread with reforming zeal at the point of the bayonet; a time when political objectives ceased to A vii T HE E NCYCLOPEDIA the OF French Revolutionary Napoleonic Wars and A Political, Social, and Military History viii Preface and Acknowledgments Notes on Technical Points Aristocratic and Other Titles A good deal of time can be spent trying to master the intricacies of aristocratic titles of this period, though one risks premature death doing so. Titles given in the entry head are those by which the individual was known by the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, and it is important to stress that they may not have received such a title until well into the period under study. Indeed, many titles were not granted until the first defeat of France in 1814, in recognition for the services rendered by the recipient. The full title of an individual may be found in the headword, except in the cases of French marshals, who often held such lengthy titles as to render their headwords unwieldy. Their full titles may be found in the entry “Marshalate.” Great care has been taken to render all aristocratic titles as accurately as possible in the text, notwithstanding the acknowledged problems that they present. As many titles in use on the Continent defy perfect English translation, recourse has been made wherever possible to supply their proper title in their native language. Hence, comte is preferred to count; freiherr instead of the loosely translated baron; graf instead of the inadequate semi-equivalent, count; these are to name but a few examples. It should also be noted that in Britain, marquis can be spelled marquess. Even if one masters an understanding of this minefield, there is always the problem of advancement up the ladder of ranks. The case of the Duke of Wellington is a good example of this. He began his service in the Iberian Peninsula in 1808 as Lieutenant General Sir Arthur Wellesley; that is to say, while he had been knighted, he had not yet been raised to the peerage. After the Battle of Talavera in 1809, however, he became Viscount Wellington; in February 1812, the Earl of Wellington; in October of that year, the Marquis (or the anglicized Marquess, which is not used in this work) of Wellington; and finally, Duke of Wellington, after the fall of France in 1814. Technically speaking, therefore, he cannot in all accuracy be referred to as the Duke of Wellington during his period of service in Iberia, notwithstanding frequent errors to the contrary in numerous sources. Thus, with respect to Wellington, and indeed with all other individuals—whatever their nationality— holding aristocratic rank, considerable care has been taken to ensure that the subject’s title is correct within the context under discussion. In a few cases, a series of changing titles can cause confusion, such as with the Duke of Wellington’s brother, Richard Colley Wellesley, who moved progressively from first Viscount Wellesley, to the second Earl of Mornington, to first Marquis Wellesley. Consistency dictates that he is identified by his proper title according to the period under discussion. Those British officers who in the course of their careers received a knighthood are identified as such with the title Sir appearing before their names. Where, however, they subsequently received a peerage, it is common practice to drop Sir in favor of the aristocratic title. A number of the more prominent Prussian generals received aristocratic titles in the wake of the campaign of 1813; hence, readers will note references to “Gebhard von Blücher” in numerous entries, for instance, yet “Gebhard Blücher von Wahlstatt” in those covering the period after which he received his new title. Metternich held the title Graf (Count) until late 1813, after which he became Fürst (Prince), though he did not use the title von. He thus appears in slightly different guises between 1813 and 1814. Similarly, Napoleon made many of his generals counts beginning in 1808, and thus readers will find this designation for those individuals so ennobled, but only in those entries which cover the period after which the title was conferred. It is also often the case that readers will encounter an abbreviated form of a title on first mention, the full treatment being reserved for the headword of the entry. In a few cases there is dispute as to whether or not an individual was entitled to hold a particular title, such as with Sir Sidney Smith and August von Gneisenau. In both cases, common acceptance has prevailed, and these men are identified as bearing the titles identified above. Then there is the considerably simpler problem of correcting historical error, such as the widely but mistaken belief that General Jean Andoche Junot was a marshal, which he was not. Nor, as mentioned above, was Wellington a duke until after Napoleon’s first defeat. Individuals bearing aristocratic names are often identified solely by such names, and not by their family names, though it is important to note that a number of personalities were identified by their first names, as with Archduke Charles, or Eugène de Beauharnais—the latter always being known as Eugène and never as Beauharnais. The form of address for Napoleon also raises difficulties, which is dealt with at length below under “Personal Names.” Medals, Decorations, and Orders For purposes of space, discussion of the names of the medals, decorations, and orders held by individuals mentioned in the text has, in most cases, been excluded. Punctuation, Spelling, Capitalization, and General Usage Readers should note that the encyclopedia, with significant exceptions, as where concessions have been made to scholarly convention in the field, generally conforms to the not universally accepted Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). Preface and Acknowledgments Some capitalization decisions will cause raised eyebrows on the European side of the Atlantic, where titles are normally capitalized, for example, Emperor of Austria, as opposed to emperor of Austria or king of Italy. With respect to French titles, this work conforms to the French method, employing lower case for aristocracy, such as comte de Provence. Britons may find such forms as chancellor of the exchequer, leader of the House of Commons, and secretary of state for war and the colonies, rather offensive to the eyes; however, in an effort to bridge CMS style and scholarly convention I have tried (whether boldly or foolishly) to reach a compromise in favor of historians. It should be noted that the CMS does make concessions to using uppercase for British aristocratic titles, if not so much for political offices. This work has also deviated in some cases from the CMS with respect to the capitalization of Emperor, when referring to Napoleon, as well as with respect to (among others) Revolutionary, Romanticism, Allied, and Allies, the latter in refererence to belligerent states forming part of a coalition against France. Conferred French titles, such as King of Rome, for Napoleon’s son, and King of Spain, for Joseph, Napoleon’s brother, also appear capitalized, whereas this is not the case for hereditary titles. Hyphens used in the French language can pose particular problems for an editor, not least because different sources identify individuals both with and without hyphens between forenames. For example, Marie Louise appears sometimes with, sometimes without hyphens, depending on the source. Punctuation presented various problems, not least because, like grammar and spelling, it is employed slightly differently on either side of the Atlantic. It is of course simple enough to use American spelling uniformly, and thus one will not find centre, but center, and caliber instead of calibre; while instead of whilst; that instead of which; waggon instead of wagon; color instead of colour; toward instead of towards, and so on. The dominance of American, over British, English in this work is no more apparent than in the presence of the split infinitive, abhorrent to British eyes and ears, yet a common and acceptable feature of English as spoken and written in North America. “To boldly go where no man has gone before” continues to produce smiles of derision in Britain, and not for reasons of poor grammar alone. Those accustomed to British English will also note that this work follows the recent American practice of dropping hyphens between compound nouns or with ranks, thus producing such words such antirevolutionary, noncommissioned, and Vice Admiral; still, I have allowed some hyphens to be retained, as with demi-brigade, pro-royalist, and sans-culotte. The original orthography for flêche (a V-shaped earthwork) is preferred over the more modern flèche. ix Where revolutionary refers specifically to the French Revolution it appears capitalized: The French Revolutionaries; a wave of Revolutionary fervor; Revolutionary governments in France, and so on. Not so, however, for royalist, republican, or other descriptive terms which have no association with a recognized major political movement. The use of army and Army has been dictated by the following rule: Where discussion focuses on the entire institution, it is capitalized; where it discusses a specific army in the field or a specific fleet at sea, it is rendered in lower case. Hence, it may be said that thousands of Irishmen enlisted in the British Army during the course of the Napoleonic Wars, whereas the British army landed in Portugal in 1808. Similarly, the Prussian Army underwent numerous reforms between 1808 and 1813, whereas the Prussian army in 1813 was led by General Gebhard von Blücher. Readers should also note that where the term Royal Navy appears, this is invariably a reference to the naval establishment of Britain, there being no such institution, technically speaking, as the “British Navy,” in the same way that one may properly refer to the U.S. Army but not to the “American Army.” Where the names of armies do not always betray their nationality, they are identified, thus: (French) Army of Italy; (French) Army of Rome; (French) Army of Batavia; (Russian) Army of Poland; and so on. Personal Names Except in the cases of those known better by their aristocratic name, every effort has been made to supply the forename as well as the surname of every individual mentioned in the text. Yet forenames are sometimes disputed by historians, and even an individual’s entire name can appear in various texts in a bewildering array of combinations, not least in the cases of Claude Perrin Victor and Toussaint Louverture. There is also the conundrum of the manner by which the leader of France should be identified: whether Buonaparte as in his early years, Bonaparte somewhat later, or Napoleon (or, strictly properly, Napoléon) throughout. Bonaparte is used in the present work for the period until his assumption of the Imperial title in 1804, and Napoleon thereafter. Readers should therefore not be surprised to find that the same person may appear as Bonaparte and Napoleon in the same entry, depending on the period under discussion. For obvious purposes of space and redundancy, readers will not find “Bonaparte, Napoleon” in the “See also” section of the entries. Nor have Napoleon and Josephine been identified as Napoléon and Joséphine which, though technically correct, are very rarely rendered as such in an English-speaking context. x Preface and Acknowledgments It was a common feature of this period for nationals of one country to serve in the army of another. Thus, numerous Germans held senior positions in the Russian Army; hence, one may encounter names that seem out of place, such as Peter Khristianovich (originally Ludwig Adolf) Graf zu Wittgenstein, the son of a Westphalian nobleman who settled in Russia. Similarly, some officers, as the descendants of immigrants, appear to have unlikely names. Thus, there was Joaquín Blake, a Spanish general of Irish descent, and Jacques Etienne Macdonald, a French marshal of Scottish extraction. Various Italians and Walloons served in the Austrian Army, on the basis of whose names alone, given no other information, one could be forgiven for assuming that they fought for the French. In cases where an individual is best known by his or her name in its anglicized form, it has been rendered so. Thus, the Austrian emperor is given as Francis rather than Franz, the king of Prussia as Frederick William rather than as Friedrich Wilhelm, and the king of Spain as Charles rather as Carlos. Russian names, being transliterated by different historians in different permutations, will lead one to find, between sources, Kamenski, Kamensky, and Kamenskoi; and Kutusov and Kutuzov. Alsusieff, Olssufiev, and Olsufiev, which appear in some sources, have been reduced to one form here, as with Seniavin versus Senyavin. In all such cases, care has been taken to provide the closest transliteration possible. Individuals with hyphenated names are identified first by their full names, but subsquently by the generally accepted shortened version, if one exists. Thus, Saxe-CoburgSaalfeld appears as Saxe-Coburg, Kolowrat-Krakowsky as Kolowrat, and so on. Where two or more forms are possible, such as Villaret-Joyeuse and Villaret de Joyeuse, the more commonly accepted of the two has been given. Military Ranks Military ranks naturally varied between armies, many of which had no equivalents elsewhere, thus presenting the military historian with a veritable minefield of problems concerning proper translation. This work provides the specific ranks for the Austrians and British, but has not done so for the French, Russians, or Prussians, on the basis that, in the case of the latter three, it may usually be assumed that a general commanding a brigade held the rank of brigadier or général de brigade, and if in command of a division, then a major general or général de division, and a lieutenant general if commanding an entire army. Naturally, numerous officers mentioned in the text received promotion through the course of their respective careers. Readers should be aware, therefore, that whereas a general officer may be identified as a brigadier general in one entry, he may appear as a major general or lieutenant general in another, as appropriate. Similarly, a French general officer whose name appears in the context of the 1790s may be identified later as a marshal. In short, attention has been paid to provide the correct rank of individuals according to the period under discussion. As such, Nelson is variously identified as Captain Horatio Nelson, Commodore Sir Horatio Nelson, and Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, Viscount Nelson, as the period in his career dictates. Ships’ Names Ships’ names have been given as they were known by the navies that commissioned them, as it is never acceptable to translate them. Having said this, the reader must be aware of the fact that the Royal Navy, on capturing an enemy vessel and choosing to incorporate it into its own service, sometimes retained the prize’s original name, a practice that accounts for the large number of ships in the Royal Navy of the time that bore French names. This practice also accounts for the fact that the rival fleets at Trafalgar possessed several ships bearing the same, or very similar, names. Readers should also be aware that a ship’s armament, that is, the number of guns it carried, is indicated on the first reference, for example, Bellerophon (74 guns), but thereafter guns is not repeated, as being superfluous. Where foreign terms arise, a translation is sometimes provided, though the original is usually preferred. Such is the case with the names of the various French armies of the Revolutionary period. One may encounter the Armée du Nord in one entry, or the Army of the North in another; the Sambre-et-Meuse in one, and the Sambre and Meuse in another. The decision to render such names in French or English has largely been left to the discretion of the contributors themselves, since there is no risk of confusion for the reader. In the cases of the principal Allied armies of 1813, that is, of Silesia, of Bohemia, and of the North, English is used, consistent with the practice adopted by all English-language texts covering this campaign. Dates It is reasonable to assume that dates ought to pose no problems for the student of history. Not so: Until 1917 the Russians used the Julian Calendar, by which dates were rendered eleven days behind the Gregorian Calendar, which prevailed throughout the rest of Europe. All “old style” Russian dates have been converted to “new style” so as to avoid confusion. There is occasional dispute concerning the exact dates on which a battle occurred if the fighting took place over the course of more than a single day. Hence, the Battle of the Nile is usually given as 1 August 1798, when in Preface and Acknowledgments fact, to be strictly accurate, it extended into the early hours of 2 August, and hence is described here as having taken place over two days. Likewise, the battles of Eylau, Talavera, Wavre, and others, are sometimes described as one-day affairs, when in fact they were fought over the course of two days, if only a fraction of the first, or of the second, day. The date of Napoleon’s abdication is traditionally given as 6 April, and is so here, but it is important to point out that in fact the Allies rejected the conditions under which the Emperor first tendered it, which led to subsequent negotiations and the conclusion of a definitive agreement the following week. This stands as but one example of how two or more dates may be offered by two or more competent sources to identify the timing of a particular event. Even the dates of treaties are sometimes in dispute: Does one use the date of signing, the date on which the treaty is to take effect, or the date of its ratification? Some treaties, like Chaumont, were signed on one day but not published until later, such that some historians offer one date, and others another. The Convention of El Arish, concluded in January 1800, is variously given as 21, 24, or 28 January. Worse still, it was disavowed by the British government and therefore never even took effect. The matter is easily solved, however: The dates provided for treaties are those on which the agreement was signed, even if ratification could not take place for weeks or, in some months, even months. This conforms to the principles followed in diplomatic historiography. A few other points on dating matters follow. To avoid confusion some events, known historically by the same generic name, such the Russo-Turkish War, are distinguished by their dates, for example, 1787–1792, or 1806–1812. To avoid cluttering the text, life dates are not used, except in the headwords, though the period of a monarch’s reign is usually provided. Also please note that the CMS preference for B.C.E. (before the Christian era) is used, in place of B.C. Place Names and Battle Names Geographically speaking, apart from Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, the European continent has altered dramatically in the past two centuries, not only as a result of the changes wrought by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, but as a result of the wars of German and Italian unification, the independence of the Ottoman Empire’s European possessions, the Versailles Settlement of 1919 (especially the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of the so-called Successor States), by the massive upheavals of the Second World War—particularly the westward shift of the borders of the Soviet Union and xi Poland—and, more recently, by the reunification of Germany and the breakup of Yugoslavia. With so many shifting borders, the names of places have often changed, either entirely as a consequence of their alteration into the language of the new proprietor, or in some other fashion over the course of time. In most cases, the reader will find in parentheses the modern name of places identified in the text. Thus, the contemporary name, Ratisbon, is identified parenthetically as Regensberg. No attempt to modernize place names has been attempted. Were this practice followed, Austerlitz would be known as Slavkov u Brna, causing utter confusion to students and scholars alike. Where spelling varies according to the nationality of the writer, recourse has been made to the form more commonly used by native-born English speakers. Thus Mainz is preferred to Mayence, Basle to Basel, Lyons to Lyon, and so on. Berne is used here instead of Bern; however, we’ve taken the American form of Bosporus instead of Bosphorus. In the case of Spanish towns, the anglicized version is sometimes preferred for the sake of easy identification by English-speaking readers: thus, Corunna is used in lieu of La Coruña, and Saragossa over Zaragoza; in many instances I have provided the Spanish-language orthography in parentheses. Some places with names still familiar to use today have changed their spellings, even if only slightly, for example, Valetta to Valletta. While it has long been the custom to name a battle after a local geographical or political feature, whether a river, lake, village, or town, the rival sides did not always agree on usage, a fact that should come as no surprise to anyone: Nations that fight over great political questions can hardly be expected to agree on the names they ascribe to the battles fought between them. Thus, the battles of the Glorious First of June, Borodino, and even Waterloo, to name but a few, are familiar to English speakers, but are not used as such by the French, even if they familiar to them. There is also some disagreement over the spelling of some battles’ names, including Auerstädt (Auerstedt), and Arcola (Arcole). The most commonly used form in the English-speaking world has been adopted in this work in an effort to reduce confusion as much as possible. Even still, there are sometimes alternative names. What to contemporaries in Britain was known as the (naval) Battle of Aboukir, is better known today as the Battle of the Nile, the former name being reserved in this text for a lesser known (land) battle fought the following year. Some place names in particular have caused endless problems for students and historians, especially those connected with the Low Countries. Such terms as the Austrian Netherlands, Belgium, and the Netherlands, must be used carefully, and every effort has been made to prevent confusion in the text. This must be cleared up here and now: xii Preface and Acknowledgments The Austrian Netherlands was a possession of the Habsburg Empire, roughly constituting what is now Belgium and Luxembourg. It is frequently and erroneously confused with the United Provinces of the Netherlands, generally known as Holland, lying immediately to the north of it. References in this text to the Austrian Netherlands are to the territory described here. The Netherlands came into being in 1814, and was an amalgamation of the former Austrian Netherlands and the Kingdom of Holland established under Napoleonic auspices in 1806. The term Netherlands is not used in this work except to describe the nation created in 1814, so that readers are aware of its distinction with the Austrian Netherlands. With respect to Belgium, though technically the country by this name was not formally established until 1830, the term was commonly used before that time to mean the territory that comprised the Austrian Netherlands until French occupation in the 1790s. It was also sometimes referred to broadly as Flanders, which itself has been divided politically in various ways over the centuries. Readers should also be aware that the terms Germany, Italy, and Poland are used in broad geographical terms to mean those areas where, respectively, the German, Italian, and Polish language and culture were predominant. The fact that none of these countries existed under such names until very much later (Italy and Germany in 1870 and 1871, respectively, and Poland in 1919, having been extinguished by the final partition of 1795) has never deterred historians from using them judiciously to describe large areas of Europe where no other description proves adequate to the task. Some place names continue in use today, but in fact refer to altogether different places. Thus, Syria during this period was in fact in what is today Israel, a circumstance rendered even more confused by the fact that it is sometimes referred to as Palestine in some histories of Bonaparte’s campaign there in 1799. Further, what was known to contemporaries as the Tyrol, a recognized Alpine region, is today simply known as Tyrol or Tirol, parts of which belong to Austria and Italy, respectively. In some cases, there is no agreement on the spelling of places, as evidenced by the numerous variations in historical texts by which one may encounter the name of the town where the Allies concluded their armistice with France in the summer of 1813: Plëiswitz, Plaswitz, Pleischwitz (the latter being the form we’ve used), and so on. Disagreement also sometimes arises over the presence or absence of an accent, as with Dunaberg or Dünaberg; Guttstadt or Guttstädt; Durrenstein, Dürnstein, or Durnstein; and Hollabrunn or Hollabrünn. Transliterated names also raise questions about proper spelling, such as in the case of Krasnoe versus Krasnyi. In the case of place names requiring transliteration, particularly from the Russian, readers will find spellings which come closest to capturing the correct pronunciation of the place concerned. Names of Weaponry By modern standards the armies of this period fought with a very narrow range of weapons, with identification and description a relatively simple matter. However, readers should be aware that the term gun never refers to small arms, but always to artillery ordnance. Thus, an army which is said to possess 85 guns means that it has 85 cannon, a term whose plural form is also cannon, not cannons. Naval terminology, which forms a large language of its own, can easily cause confusion, not least because of variations in spelling; thus: mizzenmast, mizzen mast or mizen mast; and ship of the line or ship-of-the-line, to offer but two examples. One must grapple with such arcane questions as whether or not to use a hyphen in the noun form of first rate when describing a class of vessel, or only in its adjective form. Suffice it to say that the editor hopes that this work has resolved such issues in a manner satisfactory to most readers. “Battles,” “Engagements,” and “Actions” Any hostile encounter between rival forces that involved a force of division strength or greater, that is, several thousand men on either side, has been designated a battle. Minor encounters have been described as an engagement or action. In North America, where armies were considerably smaller, what constituted a battle would not be designated so in Europe, where fighting was conducted on a greater scale than ever before. There can be no scientific formula applied here as to what genuinely qualifies as a battle. Common sense must therefore be the guiding rule. A clash between forces of battalion strength, for instance, cannot be regarded as a battle. Statistics All military historians must struggle with the unsettling fact that accurate statistics are all but impossible to obtain. The nature of military and naval records, deliberately falsified claims of losses and strengths, missing tallies of the wounded and missing, and the problems of tabulation associated with the arrival of reinforcements concurrent with losses through desertion—and many other factors to boot—render any hope of acquiring precise figures frustratingly elusive. Having said this, the figures for strengths and losses contained herein are considered the most accurate possible under the circumstances described above; suffice it to say that readers will sometimes find discrepancies with other sources, which they are actively invited to Preface and Acknowledgments consult via the “References and Further Reading” section appended to each entry. Regimental Designations and Distinctions Readers interested in the minutiae connected with the study of the individual regiments and other formations that comprised the armies of the European powers, great and small, can consult the books on such subjects referred to in the “References and Further Reading” sections accompanying the appropriate entries. No attempt at standardizing the manner of introducing regiments has been attempted here, as this would throw the whole subject into confusion. Thus, British regiments are given their proper names or numbers as they were known to contemporaries. The names or numbers of French regiments are either provided in French, or have been translated into English—but only where an exact translation can be offered. The same principle has been applied to all other armies, though obviously Russian names have undergone the process of transliteration, with the most accurate spelling offered. References and Further Reading Finally, readers should note that each entry contains a list of sources either used in the preparation of the entry, or offered as suggested further reading, or both. Many, especially the more recent sources, were added by the editor to assist readers in making use of the latest publications. Where possible, foreign language sources have been included. The latest editions available of classic texts in the literature have been provided, with basic information; full bibliographic details have not been included, in the interests of space, as in the case of the eminent historian Duff Cooper’s biography of Prince Talleyrand, now more than 70 years old, which is given in its 2001 edition. Acknowledgments My thanks go to the two distinguished members of my advisory board: the late Professor David Chandler, who served for many years as head of the Department of War Studies at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, and whose eminence in the field of Napoleonic scholarship has stood the test of many decades; and Professor Charles Esdaile, of the School of History at the University of Liverpool, who not only offered much useful advice, but contributed many excellent entries of his own to this work. David Hollins, a major contributor to this work and an authority on Austrian military and political affairs, very xiii generously gave of his advice, and offered substantial assistance in the revision of entries where needed. Peter Hofschröer, well known for his studies of this period, particularly from the Prussian and wider German perspective, helpfully answered my many questions relating to his area of expertise. I am grateful for the help and assistance provided by numerous members of the staff at ABC-CLIO. Acquisitions editor Peter Westwick read the entire manuscript and offered profitable suggestions. His successor, submissions editor Alexander Mikaberidze, an authority in his own right on the subject of this encyclopedia as well as a prolific contributor, proved exceptionally helpful in the final stages, making revisions to various entries and supplying much useful information, particularly on Russian affairs. Wendy Roseth, project assistant, unfailingly performed administrative miracles over the course of many months, thus easing my task considerably. Ellen Rasmussen, media editor, assisted with obtaining the illustrations that appear in this work; Ellen Brenna Dougherty, media image coordinator, prepared the illustrations for print; Anna Moore helped in combining and checking page corrections; Alisha Martinez, editorial assistant, assisted in the review of map revisions; Paula Gerard, file management coordinator, served as a liaison with manufacturing and also made final revisions to the maps; Diane Nelson, proofreader, made a careful examination of the text; Kate Bowman undertook the massive task of indexing this work; and Don Schmidt, production manager, generously provided additional time for its completion. My thanks also to George Barile, of Accurate Art, Holbrook, New York, for map production, and to George Zirfas, Chez D’Art, Colorado Springs, who provided map revisions and graphic assistance. Andrew Berry, of Letra Libre, in Boulder, in the designing and typesetting of this work has given it a most attractive look. I also wish to thank Kathy Delfosse and Silvine Farnell, for their superb copyediting skills. Any errors that remain are, of course, the responsibility of the editor. My greatest thanks are reserved for Martha Gray, production editor, who oversaw the final ten months of this project, proving herself indispensable in her painstaking scrutiny of both the text and the maps, and by her scrupulous attention to all other details, including copyediting and proofreading. All these tasks, performed with good humor and cheerful patience, not only preserved my sanity, but helped to raise the standard of the work in all respects. Gregory Fremont-Barnes Oxford July 2006 Introduction and, if this meant that an unfortunate timetable clash at a conference in Lisbon—unfortunate in that it prevented me from hearing his lecture—left me speaking to an audience of eight, of whom it turned out that six could only speak Portuguese, in an auditorium built for 500, I can only say that it is a story that I shall cherish to the end of my days. Then, besides David the man of courage—his last years were a show of gallant defiance in the face of terrible adversity—there was David the Romantic: the David who sincerely admired Napoleon and candidly forgave him the fact that he was, in his own words, a “bad man.” This side to his work could sometimes grate upon the reader, but his friends knew that it was accompanied by a strong streak of self-parody: Like me, they will remember with affection the wonderful cartoons in which he had himself portrayed as a distinctly portly Bonaparte! Such memories, alas, must necessarily be private affairs, but for all those interested in the Napoleonic epoch David should remain a great figure. If there were limits to his scholarship, there were no limits to his capacity to inspire interest in his subject, and I am sure that I am not the only academic historian who is honest enough to recognize that without such figures we would be lecturing to halls that are far emptier. And if just one of my books was to have the same impact as The Campaigns of Napoleon, I would be a happy man. Before going on to talk about this new encyclopedia, there is one other figure whom I should like to mention. I here refer to the American historian, Gunther Rothenberg, who was another casualty of the year 2004. The leading Anglophone specialist on the Habsburg empire of the Napoleonic period, Gunther was a veteran of the Second World War who served with the British army in the Western Desert, Italy, Yugoslavia, and Austria, and went on to make a long and distinguished academic career at Purdue University in Indiana. Like David, he, too, was very generous to me on the numerous occasions that we met at conferences in the States, and his advice not to overspecialize has stayed with me to this day—indeed, in some respects it has shaped my entire career. Kindly and wise, Gunther was s a member of the advisory board who helped to put together this work, I am delighted to have been asked to write a few words of introduction to its pages. Yet it is not without sadness that I do so. But for his recent death, my eminent colleague and old friend, David Chandler, would doubtless have filled the role in his usual inimitable style, and I greatly regret that he is not here to see this work’s publication. I do trust, however, that he would have approved of its contents. And in standing in for him, I can at least say something about this most larger than life of figures. I first came across the works of David Chandler when I was still a schoolboy. Accessible, fascinating, and positively brimming over with enthusiasm for their subject, they fired my imagination, and helped fuel the love of history that led me into the career that I have now followed for nearly thirty years. I would like to say here, of course, that it was The Campaigns of Napoleon that first got me interested in the Napoleonic period, but life, alas, is not that simple! However, what is true is that when as a young scholar in his twenties I first got to meet David in the flesh, he treated me with much kindness—kindness that he had no need to show, and kindness that undoubtedly helped me on my way as I fought my way through the maze of defenses through which the proverbial ivory tower is wont to be surrounded. In those years, too, I learned more about David as a scholar and as a human being. In the former capacity he could be quirky and in the latter unpredictable. However, what shone through in public lecture after public lecture was—again—his immense verve and enthusiasm, and, above all, his genius as a showman. Listening to David— watching David even—was a joy, and his ability both to generate an air of real excitement and to communicate it to his audience is something that I envy even now. One had the feeling, indeed, that had he only had a top hat on the table beside him, a wave of his hand would have been enough to have the entire Imperial Guard march forth from its depths. Quite simply, he was a wonderful draw, A xv xvi Introduction also a fine scholar, and the series of works that he produced on the Napoleonic Wars, and, in particular, the Austrian army, remain major reference points for all those interested in the period. Among all those who knew him he is much missed. What then of the current work? With its three volumes and nearly one million words, it is clearly a massive enterprise, and one that may justly be said to surpass anything else that is in the field. And that it reaches areas of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era that previous encyclopedias have not touched there can be no doubt. There will always be gaps, of course, but at least the experience of finding that the entries relate only to things that one already knows about, and that the things one really needs are not there, should be a little less common than before. For example, we discover that the Wars were not just waged in the heartlands of the continent of Europe, but also in such outermost peripheries as Scandinavia, the Balkans, and the Middle East. Contained within its pages, too, is much material on not just matters military and naval, but also the social, political, cultural, and economic aspects of the period, while we meet not just bemedaled generals and field marshals, but also many of the statesmen who struggled to articulate the demands of a war effort that far surpassed anything that had previously been experienced in human history. Nor is this surprising: Many of the contributors in the team put together by Gregory Fremont-Barnes are at the forefront of the academic research that has in recent years so greatly increased our appreciation of the importance and complexity of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. At the same time Gregory can justly take great pride in the work’s very full notes on further reading. As these draw on the most recent sources possible, what is offered is not just a historical encyclopedia but a major bibliography that will greatly assist students of the period. The encyclopedia also contains 65 maps, a section of source documents, two glossaries, and a chronology. The work that I am introducing, then, is very useful, but, if so, it is also extremely timely. As it is going to press, Europe is in bicentennial mode insofar as the Napoleonic era is concerned. By this time two hundred years ago, the Grande Armée had already decisively defeated the AustroRussian army at Austerlitz, on 2 December 1805, while only five weeks before Viscount Nelson had crushed the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar. Britain may have confirmed herself as mistress of the seas, but Napoleon was poised to defeat the next continental Great Power: Prussia, the bicentenary of which is fast approaching. In Britain, at least, television and radio programs that relate to the Napoleonic period seem ever more frequent, while there is hardly a museum that is not holding an exhibition on the subject, not to mention hardly a bookshop whose shelves are not currently groaning with biographies of Nelson. The literature of the Napoleonic era continues to fascinate a large readership, as well, not least because of the wild popularity of the late Patrick O’Brian in the United States since the publication of his novels there fifteen years ago, and the superbly produced 2003 Hollywood movie, based on the O’Brian series, Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World. More than one writer, indeed, have made their fortunes through tales of military and naval derring-do in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, and even in the academic world there are rumors of publishing contracts running into six figures. And as in Britain so in France, where a lavish television series on Napoleon in 2002 was accompanied by the rediscovery of the Emperor’s old soldiers: In a development of great help to researchers, the latter’s memoirs are being reprinted by the dozen. All this, of course, is likely to generate considerable sound and fury—recent debates concerning whether or not the Battle of Waterloo was a “German” victory are a case in point. There is in addition the issue of the European Union. Thanks to the coming of the Euro and the controversy that surrounds the Union’s proposed constitution, Napoleon is also very much in the forefront of political debate. Enthusiastic Bonapartists claim that the Emperor was the forefather of European union, while ardent Euro-skeptics proclaim that the Battle of Waterloo is being lost every day just a few miles up the road at the headquarters of the European Commission in Brussels. Both claims, of course, are to be taken with a pinch of salt: Napoleon’s talk of liberating the nations of Europe and uniting them in a great federation governed by a single code of law is a creation of the legend of St. Helena designed to cover the fact that the French imperium was little more than a vehicle for economic, military, and political exploitation held together by a mixture of manipulation and brute force, while, the views of British Euro-skeptics notwithstanding, the European Union has no more in common with the Napoleonic empire than it does with the united Europe presided over in the mid-twentieth century by another “little corporal,” whose short-lived Reich cost Europe tens of millions of lives. It is to be hoped, then, that this work will help to confound those who seek to plunder the past to buttress their views of the future. Yet there are many other reasons why it is worth producing a historical encyclopedia on the subject of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era. Not the least of these is the fact that right up until 1914, the years from 1792 till 1815 were at the very center of Europe’s historical consciousness. It was they that were suggested by Introduction the words “the Great War,” and it was they that provided the growing cities of Europe with a considerable part of the furniture of urban life. Square after square, then, was dominated by statues of one successful general or another, just as tavern after tavern and street after street was named after heroes of the conflict. Streets and squares, too, became the vehicle by which important battles could be remembered, while London’s Waterloo Rail Station had its counterpart in Paris’s Gare d’Austerlitz. A staple of the historical novels devoured by the newly literate masses, in country after country the wars had also emerged as a central plank of the national myth, defining national enemies and establishing models of national behavior that carried considerable weight in times of crisis. It is arguable, for example, that the Britain that had liberated Spain in 1814 could not be the Britain that failed to fight for Belgium in 1914. Having come to the aid of one country suffering at the hands of another that sought continental hegemony, Britain could not sit idly by in 1914 and allow a new disturber of the European balance of power to swallow up its weaker neighbor. Whether the aggressor happened to be France, in the first case, or Germany in the second, mattered little to Britain; the principle behind British military intervention on the Continent remained the same. Note, too, the fact that the outbreak of the First World War coincided with a period in which Europe had been celebrating the centenary of the Napoleonic Wars and in which a number of participants in the political process had had good reason to seize upon its history for their own ends. Just as is the case today, the same phenomena could sometimes be used for causes that were diametrically opposed to one another. In the Spain of 1908, then, while the Conservative government of Antonio Maura sought hard to make use of images of the Spanish uprising against Napoleon as one more means of achieving its goal of integrating the Spanish masses with the Restoration Monarchy, so in Catalonia, scholars associated with the growing nationalist movement worked hard to create a Catalan myth in which the region’s inhabitants had not only fought heroically against the French, but also fought more heroically than their counterparts in the rest of Spain. It was, in short, an age of popular nationalism, and, moreover, one that happened at a time when the Napoleonic Wars were a most potent symbol. Still, worse, many of these myths, and the hostility and prejudice to which they have given rise, are still around to this day, which is yet another reason why the period should continue to merit the attention of historians. To go back to the issue of historical perspective, an understanding of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic epoch, or at least the manner in which it was remembered and xvii manipulated by subsequent generations, is crucial to an understanding of much of what was to occur in the twentieth century. But insofar as the First World War is concerned, the wars of 1792–1815 are in one sense even more important. Much more than succeeding conflicts—the American Civil War of 1861–1865 is the obvious example—they epitomized the shape of wars to come in the popular imagination. In a number of states a variety of regiments still paraded in uniforms that recalled those that had been worn in 1815, while in one or two instances they even went to war in them. Equally, many of the tunes still played by military bands had been heard at Waterloo, Leipzig, or Austerlitz. And, finally, pictorial depictions of, say, the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 were very much inclined to mirror the art of the Napoleonic era. But from this there followed something else. Precisely because the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars still provided the idiom in which war was understood in the popular mind, they to a certain extent anesthetized it against its horrors. At first sight, this may seem paradoxical: As we shall shortly discover, the years from 1792 to 1815 were as traumatic as any that had hitherto been experienced in European history. But in most of the states that went to war in 1914, the memory of the campaigns of the Revolution and Napoleon was centered on the concept of the great battle—the decisive clash that could, like Austerlitz, Jena, Friedland, Leipzig, or Waterloo, seal the fate of a campaign at a stroke and thus ensure that war was relatively painless. At the Battle of Sadowa in 1866, during Prussia’s second brief war with Austria, the trick had been pulled off again, and those who thought that this would not be the case in 1914 were few and far between. Indeed, it is even arguable that the obsession with the decisive battle was by no means guiltless in the process that finally took Europe into a new “great war”: What was Imperial Germany’s Schlieffen Plan if not a particularly grandiloquent version of the Napoleonic manoeuvre sur les derrières—a grand, decisive encircling movement designed to clinch victory without the necessity of drawn-out fighting? Yet, by a curious process of osmosis, the passage of a century from the wars of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic era had transformed them from looming specter to source of reassurance. Nevertheless, it was very much as looming specter that they deserved to be remembered. Prior to the First World War, only the Thirty Years’ War of 1618–1648 had come close to rivaling them in the human experience in terms of death and destruction, while the latter had been much more restricted in terms of the area that it affected in geographical terms. How many soldiers and civilians died as a direct result of the fighting, of hunger and privation, or in consequence of the terrible epidemics of disease (above all, xviii Introduction typhus) that the different armies carried in their train is impossible to say, but five million is probably the very smallest figure that is acceptable, and the real total may well be much higher. And behind the bare figures lies an image of hell: With knowledge of modern medicine and sanitation as limited as the facilities that existed to assist the sick and wounded, the human suffering that all this represented is scarcely within the bounds of comprehension. Given the image of military pomp that surrounds the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars—an image given further credence by the fact that, at least on the parade ground, the uniforms of the French and their opponents were probably more dazzling that anything worn by any soldiers before or since—it is worth reflecting on these realities. All the more is this necessary given the survival of the Napoleonic legend. Thus, in testimony to his brilliance as a propagandist, the Emperor continues to seize the imagination of many observers who are convinced they see in him the little man made good, the perpetual underdog, the man of the French Revolution struggling to liberate the peoples of Europe, the man of the future dragging Europe willy-nilly into the modern age, and, perhaps above all, the quintessential Romantic hero. Whether Napoleon was genuinely any of those things is a matter of debate, but what cannot be denied is that each and every one of them came at a terrible cost. It will, of course, here be argued by loyal Bonapartists that none of this was Napoleon’s fault—that all of the evils associated with the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, indeed, came from the stubborn refusal of the monarchs of Europe to allow France and her revolution any place in their world. Well, perhaps, but to make such a claim involves raising so many questions that one is again forced back on the need to study the period in detail, and, by extension, to recognize that the current work is an extremely useful addition to the literature of an epoch that is not just distant history, but a defining point of reference for the age in which we live. Charles J. Esdaile University of Liverpool About the Editor regory Fremont-Barnes holds a doctorate in modern history from the University of Oxford, where he studied under the distinguished military historians Sir Michael Howard, Regius Professor of Modern History, and Robert O’Neill, Chichele Professor of the History of War. After leaving Oxford he lived briefly in London before moving to Japan, where he spent eight years as a university lecturer in European and American history. He is the author of numerous books, including The French Revolutionary Wars; The Peninsular War, 1807–1814; The Fall of the French Empire, 1813–1815; The Boer War, 1899–1902; Trafalgar 1805: Nelson’s Crowning Victory; Nelson’s Sailors; and The Wars of the Barbary Pirates: To the Shores of Tripoli, the Rise of the U.S. Navy and Marines. He is also coeditor of the five-volume Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War. Dr. Fremont-Barnes’s next book will be The Indian Mutiny, 1857–1858. He lives near Oxford with his wife and two sons. G xix Advisory Board Professor David G. Chandler † Former Head of the Department of War Studies Royal Military Academy Sandhurst Camberley, Surrey United Kingdom Professor Charles J. Esdaile School of History University of Liverpool Liverpool, Merseyside United Kingdom Gregory Fremont-Barnes Oxford, Oxfordshire United Kingdom xx List of Entries Contextual Essays The Outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars, Gregory Fremont-Barnes Military Operations of the French Revolutionary Wars, Gregory Fremont-Barnes The Outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars, Gregory Fremont-Barnes Military Operations of the Napoleonic Wars, Gregory Fremont-Barnes Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), Malcolm Crook French Revolutionary Political Thought and Ideology, Andrew J. Waskey Literature and the Romantic Movement, Shannon Schedlich-Day Empire-Building within Europe and Abroad, Tom Lansford Science, Exploration, and Technology, William E. Burns The Economic Background of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Laura Cruz A–Z Entries Abensberg, Battle of Abercromby, Sir Ralph Aboukir, Battle of Acre, Siege of Addington, Henry Afrancesados Alba de Tormes, Battle of Albeck, Battle of Albuera, Battle of Alexander I, Tsar Alexandria, Battle of Algeciras, First Battle of Algeciras, Second Battle of Almeida, Sieges of Altenkirchen, Battle of Alvinczy, Joseph Freiherr von Berberek Amberg, Battle of Amiens, Treaty of Amstetten, Battle of Antommarchi, Francesco Arakcheyev, Aleksey Andreyevich, Count Arcis-sur-Aube, Battle of Arcola, Battle of Argüelles Alvarez, Agustín Armed Neutrality, League of Armistice of 1813 Arroyomolinos de Montánchez, Battle of Art Treasures (Plundered by the French) Artillery (Land) Artillery (Naval) Artois, Charles Philippe de Bourbon, comte d’ Aspern-Essling, Battle of Auerstädt, Battle of Augereau, Pierre-François-Charles Austen, Jane Austerlitz, Battle of Austria Austrian Army Badajoz, First Siege of Badajoz, Second Siege of Badajoz, Third Siege of Bagration, Peter Ivanovich, Prince xxi Bailén, Battle of and Capitulation at Balcombe, Betsy Ballesteros, Francisco Balloons, Observation Bank Crises Barclay de Tolly, Mikhail Andreas Barras, Paul Jean François Nicolas, vicomte de Barrosa, Battle of Bar-sur-Aube, Battle of Basle, Treaties of Basque Roads, Attack on Bassano, Battle of Bathurst, Henry Bathurst, Third Earl Bautzen, Battle of Bavaria Bavarian Army Bayonne, Conference at Beauharnais, Eugène Rose de Beethoven, Ludwig van Belgium, Campaign in Belle Isle, Battle of Bellegarde, Heinrich Graf Benavente, Action at Benckendorf, Alexander Khristoforovich (Constantine Alexander Karl Wilhelm) Graf Bennigsen, Levin August, Baron Bentham, Jeremy Beresford, Sir William Carr Berezina, Actions and Crossing at the Berg, Grand Duchy of Bergen, Battle of Berlin Decrees Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste-Jules Berthier, Louis-Alexandre Bertrand, Henri-Gatien, comte Bessières, Jean-Baptiste xxii List of Entries Biberach, Battle of Bidassoa, Crossing of the Bladensburg, Battle of Blake, Joaquín Blake, William Blockade (Naval) Blücher von Wahlstatt, Gebhard Lebrecht Fürst Bolívar, Simón Bonaparte, Caroline Bonaparte, Elisa Bonaparte, Jérôme Bonaparte, Joseph Bonaparte, Louis Bonaparte, Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon Bonaparte, Pauline Borghetto, Battle of Borodino, Battle of Boxtel, Battle of Brienne, Battle of British Army Brueys d’Aigailliers, François Paul comte de Bruix, Eustache Brumaire, Coup of Brune, Guillaume-Marie-Anne Brunswick Manifesto Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, William Frederick, Duke of Buenos Aires, Expedition to Bülow von Dennewitz, Friedrich Wilhelm Graf Burgos, Siege of Busaco, Battle of Buxhöwden, Fedor Fedorovich (Friedrich Wilhelm), Count Byron, George Noel Gordon, Lord Cabrera Cádiz, Cortes of Cádiz, Siege of Cairo, Uprising in Calabria, Uprising in Caldiero, First Battle of Caldiero, Second Battle of Caliano, Battle of Cambacérès, Jean-Jacques Régis de, duc de Parme Cambronne, Pierre Jacques Etienne Camp Followers Camperdown, Battle of Campo Formio, Treaty of Canning, George Canova, Antonio Cape Colony, First Expedition against Cape Colony, Second Expedition against Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Caro y Sureda, Pedro, Marqués de la Romana Carra St. Cyr, Claude Cassano, Battle of Castaños, Francisco Javier de Castiglione, Battle of Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount Castricum, Battle of Cathcart, William Cathcart, First Earl Catherine II “the Great,” Tsarina Catholic Emancipation Caulaincourt, Armand-Augustin-Louis de, marquis de, duc de Vicence Caulaincourt, Auguste Jean Gabriel, comte de Cavalry Ceva, Battle of Champaubert, Battle of Championnet, Jean-Etienne Vachier Chappe, Claude Chaptal, Jean Antoine Charles IV, King Charles, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Teschen Chateaubriand, François René, vicomte de Château-Thierry, Battle of Chaumont, Conference and Treaty of Cherasco, Armistice at Chernishev (Chernyshev), Alexander Ivanovich, Prince Chichagov, Pavel Vasilievich Chippewa, Battle of Chouans Cintra, Convention of Cisalpine Republic Ciudad Rodrigo, First Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, Second Siege of Civil Code Clausewitz, Karl Maria von Cobbett, William Cobenzl, Johann Ludwig Graf Coleridge, Samuel Taylor Colli, Michael Freiherr von Collingwood, Cuthbert, Viscount Colloredo, Franz Graf von Combermere, Stapleton Cotton, Viscount Concordat Confederation of the Rhine Congreve Rockets Conscription (French) Constable, John Constant de Rebecque, HenriBenjamin Constitutions (French) Consulate, The Continental System Convention, The Copenhagen, Attack on Copenhagen, Battle of Corn Laws Cornwallis, William Corps System Corsica Corunna, Battle of Corunna, Retreat to Cossacks Cotton, Stapleton Council of Ancients Council of Five Hundred Courtrai, Battle of Craig, Sir James Craonne, Battle of Craufurd, Robert Cuesta, Gregorio de la Czartoryski, Adam Jerzy, Prince Danzig, First Siege of Dardanelles, Expedition to the David, Jacques-Louis Davout, Louis Nicolas Davy, Sir Humphry Davydov (Davidov), Denis Vasilievich Dego, Battle of Denmark Dennewitz, Battle of Desaix, Louis-Charles-Antoine, chevalier de Veygoux Desertion Díaz Porlier, Juan Diersheim, Battle of Directory, The Division Divorce Dokhturov, Dmitry Sergeyevich List of Entries Donegal, Battle of Dresden, Battle of Drouet, Jean-Baptiste, comte d’Erlon Drouot, Antoine, comte Du Pont de Nemours, Pierre Samuel Düben, Battle of Dumouriez, Charles François Dupérier Dundas, Henry, First Viscount Melville Dupont de l’Etang, Pierre-Antoine, comte Duroc, Géraud Christophe Michel, duc de Frioul Dürnstein, Battle of Dutch Forces Dutch Navy Ebersberg, Battle of Education (French) Eggmühl, Battle of Egypt El Arish, Convention of El Bodón, Action at Elba Elchingen, Battle of Emancipation Edict Emigrés Emmendingen, Battle of Enclosure Act Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc d’ Engineering England, French Plans for the Invasion of Erfurt, Congress of Ermolov (Yermolov), Aleksey Petrovich Espinosa de los Monteros, Battle of Espionage Espoz Ilundaín, Francisco Eylau, Battle of Fédérés Ferdinand IV, King Ferdinand VII, King Ferdinand of Habsburg, Archduke of Austria, Grand Duke Ferdinand III of Tuscany Ferdinand d’Este, Archduke Fichte, Johann Gottlieb Fiedovoisky, Battle of Fifth Coalition, War of the Figueras, Battles of Finland First Coalition, War of the Flanders, Campaigns in Fleurus, Battle of Fluvia, Battles of the Fontainebleau, Treaty of Fouché, Joseph, duc d’Otrante Fourth Coalition, War of the Fox, Charles James Foy, Maximilien Sebastien, comte France France, Campaign in Francis I, Emperor Frederick William II, King Frederick William III, King French Army French Navy French Revolution Friant, Louis, comte Friedberg, Battle of Friedland, Battle of Frigates Fuentes de Oñoro, Battle of Fulton, Robert Gaeta, Sieges of Gamonal, Battle of Ganteaume, Honoré Joseph Antoine, comte de Garay y Perales, Martín de García de la Cuesta, Gregorio Gay-Lussac, Joseph-Louis Geisberg, Battle of the Genoa, Siege of Gentz, Friedrich von George III, King Gérard, Maurice Etienne, comte Germany, Campaign in Gerona, Siege of Gillray, James Girondins Glorious First of June, Battle of the Gneisenau, August Wilhelm Anton Graf Neidhardt von Godoy y Alvarez de Faria, Manuel de, Príncipe de la Paz, Duque de Alcudia Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von Golitsyn, Dmitry Vladimirovich, Prince Golitsyn, Sergey Fedorovich, Prince Golymin, Battle of xxiii Gouvion St. Cyr, Laurent, comte Goya y Lucientes, Francisco José de Graham, Sir Thomas Grand Strategy Grand Tactics Grant, Colquhoun Great Britain Grenville, William Wyndham Grenville, Baron Gribeauval System Grossbeeren, Battle of Grouchy, Emmanuel, marquis de Guerrilla Warfare Gulf of Genoa, Battle of the Gustavus IV, King Gyulai, Ignaz Graf von Maros-Nemeth und Nadaska Haiti Halle, Battle of Hamburg, Defense of Hamilton, Emma, Lady Hanau, Battle of Hanover Hanoverian Army Hardenberg, Karl August Fürst von Harrowby, Dudley Ryder, First Earl of Haugwitz, Christian August Heinrich Kurt Graf von Haydn, Joseph Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Heilsberg, Battle of Heliopolis, Battle of Hill, Sir Rowland Hoche, Louis Lazare Höchstädt, Battle of Hofer, Andreas Hohenlinden, Battle of Hollabrunn, Action at Holy Alliance Holy Roman Empire Hondschoote, Battle of Hood, Alexander, First Viscount Bridport Howe, Richard, Earl Humboldt, Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand Freiherr von Hungary Hyères, Action off Iashvili (Yashvili), Leo Mikhailovich, Prince xxiv List of Entries Ibrahim Bey, Al Kabir Al-Muhammadi Idéologues Ile de Groix, Action off Ilovaysky (Ilovaysky XII), Vasily Dmitryevich Imperial Guard (French) Imperial Recess India Infantry Inkovo, Action at Ionian Islands Ireland Irish Rebellion Irun, Battle of Italian Army Italian Campaigns (1792–1797) Italian Campaigns (1799–1800) Italian Campaigns (1813–1814) “Italian Independence,” War of Italy, Kingdom of Jacobins Janissaries Jankovo, Battle of Jemappes, Battle of Jena, Battle of Jena-Auerstädt Campaign John, Archduke Jomini, Antoine Henri, Baron Josephine, Empress Joubert, Barthélemy Catherine Jourdan, Jean-Baptiste Jovellanos Jove, Baltasar Melchor Gaspar María de Junot, Jean Andoche, duc d’Abrantès Junta Central Kalisch, Convention of Kamenski (Kamensky), Mikhail Fedorovich Kamenski, Nikolay Mikhailovich, Count Kamenski, Sergey Mikhailovich, Count Kant, Immanuel Katzbach, Battle of the Keats, John Kellermann, François Etienne Christophe “the Elder” Kellermann, François Etienne “the Younger,” comte Kjoge, Battle of Kléber, Jean-Baptiste Kleist von Nollendorf, Friedrich Heinrich Ferdinand Emil Graf Kleist, Heinrich Wilhelm von Krasnyi, First Battle of Krasnyi, Second Battle of Kray, Paul Freiherr von Krajova Krüdener, Julie Freiherrin von Kulm, Battle of Kulnev, Jacob Petrovich Kutaisov (Kutaysov), Alexander Ivanovich, Count Kutuzov, Mikhail Golenischev-, Prince La Rothière, Battle of Lafayette, Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La-Fère-Champenoise, Battle of Laffrey, Incident at Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Landrecies, Battle of Landshut, Battle of Langeron, Louis Alexander Andrault Lannes, Jean Laon, Battle of Larrey, Dominique Jean, baron Lasalle, Antoine Charles Louis, comte Lauriston, Jacques Alexandre, comte Lawrence, Sir Thomas Le Boulou, Battle of Leclerc, Charles-Victor Emmanuel Lefebvre, François Joseph Lefebvre-Desnouëttes, Charles, comte Leipzig, Battle of Leoben, Preliminaries of Levée en Masse Liebertwolkwitz, Action at Liechtenstein, Johannes Joseph Fürst zu Ligny, Battle of Ligurian Republic Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, Second Earl of Loano, Battle of Lodi, Battle of Lonato, Battles of López Ballesteros, Francisco Losses (French) Lough Swilly Expedition Louis XVI, King Louis XVIII, King Louise, Queen Louisiana Purchase Lowe, Sir Hudson Luddites Lundy’s Lane, Battle of Lunéville, Treaty of Lützen, Battle of Lützow, Adolf Luxembourg Lyons, Siege of Maastricht, Siege of Macdonald, Jacques Etienne Joseph Alexandre Maciejowice, Battle of Mack, Karl Freiherr von Leiberich Madrid, Action at Madrid Uprising Magdeburg, Siege of Magnano, Battle of Maida, Battle of Mainz, Siege of Maison, The Malet Conspiracy Maloyaroslavets, Battle of Malta, Operations on Mannheim Offensive Mantua, Sieges of Marengo, Battle of Marie Louise, Empress Marines Marmont, Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de Marseillaise, La Marshalate Martín Díez, Juan, “El Empecinado” Martinique Masséna, André Maximilian I, King Maya, Battle of Medellín, Battle of Medical Services Medina de Río Seco, Battle of Melas, Michael Friedrich Benedikt Freiherr von Melville, Henry Dundas, First Viscount Menou, Jacques-François de Boussay, baron Mercantilism Merino, Jerónimo Metternich, Klemens Wenzel Lothar Fürst Middle East Campaign List of Entries Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky, Alexander Ivanovich Milan Decrees Miloradovich, Mikhail Andreyevitch, Count Mina y Larrea, Martín Javier Mincio River, Battle of the Minorca Möckern, Battle of Mogilev, Action at Moncey, Bon Adrien Jannot de Mondovi, Battle of Moñino, José, Conde de Floridablanca Moniteur, Le Montbrun, Louis-Pierre, comte Montebello, Battle of Montenotte, Battle of Montereau, Battle of Montholon, Charles Tristan, comte de Montmartre, Action at Montmirail, Battle of Moore, Sir John Moreau, Jean Victor Mortier, Adolphe Edouard Casimir Joseph Moscow, Occupation of Mount Tabor, Battle of Murad Bey Murat, Joachim Musket Nansouty, Etienne Marie Antoine Champion, comte de Naples Napoleon II, King of Rome National Guard (French) Naval Warfare Neapolitan Army Neapolitan Campaign Neerwinden, Battle of Nelson, Horatio, First Viscount Neoclassicism Neresheim, Battle of Netherlands, Campaign in the (1813–1814) Netherlands, The Neverovsky, Dmitry Petrovich New Orleans, Battle of Ney, Michel Nile, Battle of the Nive, Battle of the Nivelle, Battle of the Nore, Mutiny at the North Holland, Campaign in (1799) Norway Novi, Battle of Ocaña, Battle of O’Donnell, Enrique O’Meara, Barry Edward Oporto, Battle of Orange, William, Prince of Oranges, War of the Orders in Council Orthez, Battle of Osten-Sacken, Fabian Vilgelmovich, Prince Osterman-Tolstoy, Alexander Ivanovich, Count Ostrach, Battle of Ostrovno, Battle of Ottoman Army Ottoman Empire Ottoman Navy Oudinot, Nicolas Charles Owen, Robert Paget, Sir Edward Paine, Tom Pajol, Claude Pierre Pakenham, Sir Edward Palm, Johann Philipp Pamplona, Siege of Papal States Paris Paris, First Treaty of Paris, Second Treaty of Paul I, Tsar Peninsular War Perceval, Spencer Pérignon, Dominique-Catherine Perpignan, Battle of Pfuel, Karl Ludwig August von Phélypeaux, Antoine le Picard de Pichegru, Jean-Charles Picton, Sir Thomas Pillnitz, Declaration of Pirna, Battle of Pitt, William Pius VI, Pope Pius VII, Pope Platov, Matvei Ivanovich, Count and Ataman Poland xxv Poland, Partitions of Polish Forces Polotsk, Battle of Poniatowski, Józef Anton, Prince Portugal Portugal, Invasions of (1807–1808) Portuguese Army Poserna, Action at Pozzo di Borgo, Charles-André Pressburg, Treaty of Prince Regent and the Regency Period Prisoners of War Privateering Privateers (French) Prize Money Propaganda (French) Prussia Prussian Army Public Safety, Committee of Pultusk, Battle of Pyramids, Battle of the Pyrenean Campaigns (1793–1795) Quadrilateral, The Quadruple Alliance Quatre Bras, Battle of Queipo de Llano, José María, Conde de Toreno Quiberon, Expedition to Quintana y Lorenzo, Manuel José Raab, Battle of Radetzky von Radetz, Johann Joseph Wenzel Graf Rapp, Jean, comte Rastatt, Battle of Ratisbon, Storming of Rayevsky, Nikolay Nikolayevich, Count Rebolledo de Palafox y Melzi, José Reichenbach, Convention of Reille, Honoré Charles Michel Joseph, comte Republican Calendar Reynier, Jean Louis Ebénézer, comte Rheims, Battle of Rhine Campaigns (1792–1797) Rhine Campaigns (1799–1800) Rifle Rimsky-Korsakov, Alexander Mikhailovich Rivoli, Battle of xxvi List of Entries Robespierre, Maximilien François Marie Isidore Roer, Battle of the Roliça, Battle of Romanticism Roncesvalles, Battle of Rosetta Stone Rovereto, Battle of Royal Navy Russia Russian Army Russian Campaign Russian Navy Russo-Polish War Russo-Swedish War Russo-Turkish War Saalfeld, Action at Sacile, Battle of Sahagún de Campos, Action at Salamanca, Battle of Sambre, Battles of the San Giuliano, Battle of San Ildefonso, Treaty of San Marcial, First Battle of San Marcial, Second Battle of San Sebastian, Siege of Sánchez García, Julián Santo Domingo Santo Domingo, Battle of Saragossa, Sieges of Sardinia Saumarez, Sir James Savants Savary, Anne Jean Marie René, duc de Rovigo Savoy Saxon Army Saxony Scharnhorst, Gerhard Johann David von Schérer, Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schill, Ferdinand Baptista von Schiller, Friedrich von Schimmelpenninck, Rutger Jan Schliengen, Battle of Schönbrunn, Treaty of Schwarzenberg, Karl Philipp Fürst zu Scott, Sir Walter Second Coalition, War of the Ségur, Philippe Paul, comte de Semaphore Senyavin, Dmitry Nikolayevich Sérurier, Jean Mathieu Philibert, comte Shelley, Percy Bysshe Ships of the Line Shrapnel Shubra Khit, Action at Shuvalov, Pavel Andreyevich, Prince Sicily Sickness and Disease Siege Warfare Sieyès, Emmanuel Joseph, comte Six Days Campaign Slave Trade Slavery Sloops Smith, Sir William Sidney Smolensk, Battle of Somosierra, Action at Sorauren, Battle of Souham, Joseph, comte Soult, Nicolas Jean de Dieu South America Southey, Robert Spain Spanish Army Spanish Navy Speransky, Mikhail Mikhailovich, Count Spithead, Mutiny at St. Dizier, Battle of St. Gotthard Pass, Action at the St. Helena St. Hilaire, Louis Vincent Joseph le Blond, comte de St. Laurent, Battle of St. Lucia St. Michael, Battle of St. Pierre, Battle of St. Vincent, Battle of St. Vincent, John Jervis, First Earl of Stadion-Warthausen, Johann Philipp Graf Staël, Mme Germaine de Standards, Flags, and Eagles Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl Freiherr vom und zum Stendhal Stockach, First Battle of Stockach, Second Battle of Stokoe, John Stralsund, Siege of Subservie, Jacques Gervais, baron Suchet, Louis-Gabriel Suvorov, Alexander Vasilievich Sweden Swedish Army Swedish Navy Swiss Forces Switzerland Switzerland, Campaign in Talavera, Battle of Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles-Maurice de, prince Tarbes, Battle of Tarragona, Siege of Tauroggen, Convention of Teplitz, Treaty of Terror, The Teugn-Hausen, Battle of Texel, Capture of the Dutch Fleet off Thermidor Coup Thielmann, Johann Adolph Freiherr von Third Coalition, War of the Thugut, Johann Amadeus Freiherr von Tilsit, Treaties of Tolentino, Battle of Tone, Wolfe Torgau, Siege of Tormasov, Alexander Petrovich Torres Vedras, Lines of Toulon, Siege of Toulouse, Battle of Tourcoing, Battle of Tournai, Battle of Toussaint Louverture Trafalgar, Battle of Trebbia, Battle of the Trianon Decree Trinidad, Expedition to Tripolitan War Troyes, Agreement at Truillas, Battle of Tuchkov (Tuchkov I), Nikolay Alekseyevich Tuchkov (Tuchkov II), Sergey Alekseyevich Tuchkov (Tuchkov III), Pavel Alekseyevich Tuchkov (Tuchkov IV), Alexander Alekseyevich List of Entries Tudela, Battle of Tugendbund Turner, Joseph Mallord William Tyrol, Uprising in the Ulm, Surrender at Uniforms Union, Act of United States United States Army United States Navy Uvarov, Fedor Petrovich, Count Uxbridge, Henry William Paget, Second Earl of Valencia, Siege of Valmaseda, Action at Valmy, Battle of Vandamme, Dominique-Joseph-René Vauchamps, Battle of Vendée, Revolts in the Vendémiaire Coup Venetian Republic Vera, Battles of Verling, James Roch Verona, Battle of Victor, Claude Perrin Vienna Vienna, Congress of Villaret-Joyeuse, Louis Thomas Villeneuve, Pierre Charles Jean Baptiste Silvestre de Vilna, Battle of Vimeiro, Battle of Vinkovo, Battle of Vitebsk, Battle of Vitoria, Battle of Vosges, Battle of the Wagram, Battle of Walcheren, Expedition to War Finance (French) War of 1812 Waterloo, Battle of Waterloo Campaign Wattignies, Battle of Wavre, Battle of Weissenburg, Battle of Wellesley, Richard Colley Wellesley, First Marquis Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, First Duke of West Indies, Operations in the Westphalia Wilberforce, William Winter, Johan Willem de Winzegorode (Wintzingerode), Ferdinand Fedorovich, Baron Wittgenstein, Peter Khristianovich (Peter Ludwig Adolf) Graf zu (Sayn-) Wordsworth, William Wrede, Karl Philipp Freiherr von Würmser, Dagobert Sigismund Graf Württemberg Würzburg, Battle of Yorck von Wartenburg, Johann David Ludwig Graf York and Albany, Frederick Augustus, Duke of Zieten, Wieprecht Hans Karl Friedrich Ernst Heinrich Graf von Znaim, Battle of Zürich, First Battle of Zürich, Second Battle of xxvii Primary Source Documents 1. William Pitt’s Speech to the House of Commons, 1 February 1793 2. Battle of the Glorious First of June, 1 June 1794 3. Battle of St. Vincent, 14 February 1797 4. Battle of the Nile, 1 August 1798 5. Treaty of Lunéville, 9 February 1801 6. Treaty of Amiens, 25 March 1802 7. Pitt’s State Paper, 19 January 1805 8. Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805 9. Admiral Collingwood’s Dispatch, 22 October 1805 10. Documents concerning the Continental System, 1806–1810 11. Documents concerning the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, 1806 12. Documents concerning the Peace of Tilsit, 1807–1808 13. Encounter between the frigates HMS Macedonian and USS United States, 25 October 1812 14. Treaty of Chaumont, 1 March 1814 15. (First) Treaty of Paris, 30 May 1814 16. Declaration of the Powers against Napoleon, 13 March 1815 17. Holy Alliance Treaty, 26 September 1815 18. (Second) Treaty of Paris, 20 November 1815 List of Maps Key to Military Map Symbols, xxxi 1. Europe in 1792, 3 2. Major Actions on Land, 1792–1801, 6 3. Battles of the French Revolutionary Wars: Northern Europe, 8 4. Europe in 1810, 39 5. Battle of Albuera, 16 May 1811, 55 6. Europe in 1802: Political Situation in the Wake of the Treaty of Amiens, 64 7. Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, 20–21 March 1814, 68 8. Battle of Arcola, 15–17 November 1796: Action on the Third Day, 71 9. Battle of Aspern-Essling, 21–22 May 1809: Action on the Second Day, 82 10. Battle of Auerstädt, 14 October 1806: Principal Phases of the Action, 85 11. Battle of Austerlitz, 2 December 1805: Situation at 2:30 P.M., 92 12. Battle of Bautzen, 20–21 May 1813, 120 13. Crossing of the Berezina, 25–29 November 1812, 137 14. Battle of Borodino, 7 September 1812, 172 15. Battle of Busaco, 27 September 1810, 191 16. Europe in 1797: Political Settlement after the Treaty of Campo Formio, 206 17. Battle of Castiglione, 5 August 1796: Situation in Late Morning, 216 18. Battle of Copenhagen, 2 April 1801, 267 19. Battle of Corunna, 16 January 1809, 272 20. Retreat to Corunna, December 1808–January 1809, 273 21. Battle of Dresden, 26–27 August 1813, 302 22. Battle of Eylau, 8 February 1807: Situation in the Morning, 334 23. Campaign of 1809, 343 24. Contending Powers in the First Coalition, 1792–1797, 348 25. Campaign in France, 1814, 367 26. Battle of Friedland, 14 June 1807, 389 27. Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro, 3–5 May 1811, 395 28. Theater of Operations in Germany, 1813, 406 29. Campaigns in Italy, 1796–1800, 489 30. Battle of Jena, 14 October 1806: Principal Phases of the Action, 501 31. Campaign of 1806, 506 32. Battle of La Rothière, 1 February 1814, 542 33. Battle of Laon, 9–10 March 1814; Battle of Croanne, 7 March 1814, 553 34. Battle of Leipzig, 16–19 October 1813: Action on the First Day, 563 35. Battle of Leipzig, 16–19 October 1813: Action on the Third Day, 566 xxix 36. Battle of Ligny, 16 June 1815: Situation at 2:15 P.M., 571 37. Battle of Lützen, 2 May 1813, 587 38. Battle of Marengo, 14 June 1800: Situation in the Afternoon, 608 39. Campaign in Egypt, 1798, 636 40. Battle of Montmirail, 11 February 1814, 654 41. Battle of New Orleans, 8 January 1815, 692 42. Battle of the Nile, 1–2 August 1798, 699 43. Iberian Peninsula, 1807–1814, 742 44. Battle of the Pyramids, 21 July 1798, 793 45. Battle of Quatre Bras, 16 June 1815: Situation at 3:00 P.M., 800 46. Rhine Campaigns, 1792–1800, 816 47. Battle of Rivoli, 14–15 January 1797, 822 48. Russian Campaign, 1812, 846 49. Battle of Salamanca, 22 July 1812, 860 50. Contending Powers in the Second Coalition, 1798–1802, 891 51. Battle of St. Vincent, 14 February 1797: Situation at about 2:00 P.M., 941 52. Battle of Talavera, 27–28 July 1809, 970 53. Campaign of 1805, 983 54. Lines of Torres Vedras, 1810, 992 55. Siege of Toulon, September–December 1793, 994 56. Battle of Toulouse, 10 April 1814, 996 57. Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805: Situation at Noon, 1004 xxx List of Maps 58. Battle of Valmy, 20 September 1792, 1034 59. Europe in 1815: Political Reconstruction after the Congress of Vienna, 1050 60. Battle of Vimeiro, 21 August 1808, 1056 61. Battle of Vitoria, 21 June 1813, 1061 62. Battle of Wagram, 5–6 July 1809: Action on the Second Day, 1066 63. Battle of Waterloo, 18 June 1815: 11:30 A.M. to 5:30 P.M., 1076 64. Battle of Waterloo, 18 June 1815: 5:30 P.M. to 8:00 P.M., 1079 65. Operations in the West Indies, 1095 Key to Military Map Symbols Formations Military Symbols NAPOLEON Army (commander) IV Artillery Camp Corps Cavalry picket Division Field fortification Brigade Permanent linear fortification Regiment Fort Battalion G.H.Q. General headquarters Infantry General unit area Cavalry Naval vessel Body of troops Small boat flotilla Infantry square Site of engagement Geographical Symbols Movements Advances Bridge Attacks Hills/Heights Retreats Mountains River Abbreviations Road Gde Guard Cav Cavalry Res Reserve Div Division Swamp Town Woods xxxi Chronology 1792 March 2 April 19 20 29 May 15 18 June 18 26 29 July 24 November 6 Battle of Jemappes, in the Austrian Netherlands 15 French occupy Brussels 20 French declare the Scheldt open Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, dies. December 1–16 French driven from the east bank of the Rhine 2 French complete occupation of the Austrian Netherlands Duke of Brunswick’s army crosses the French border France declares war on Austria French offensive into Flanders halted by the Austrians at Valenciennes 1793 January 20 Louis XVI, King of France, is executed 23 Second partition of Poland by Russia and Prussia France declares war on Sardinia Russian troops invade Poland February 1 France declares war on Britain and the United Provinces (Holland) Renewed French offensive into the Austrian Netherlands result in capture of Courtrai First Coalition formed between Austria and Prussia French troops retreat from Courtrai March 6 7 10 18 Prussia declares war on France April 5 6 14 15 August 1 Austro-Prussian forces cross the Rhine September 20 Battle of Valmy; First French offensive in Italy begins 22 France proclaimed a republic 25 Allies invest Lille 28 French troops occupy Nice, in Piedmont Battle of Maastricht France declares war on Spain Outbreak of revolt in the Vendée Battle of Neerwinden Dumouriez defects to the Allies Committee of Public Safety established in Paris Allies lay siege to Mainz, on the Rhine Operations in the West Indies open with British attack on Tobago May 8 Battle of St. Amand 5 British capture Port-au-Prince, St. Domingue, West Indies Allies take Valenciennes June October 6 Allied forces withdraw from Lille 20 French forces occupy Mainz and Frankfurt 22 Prussians evacuate France 28 xxxiii xxxiv July 17 21 Chronology Battle of Perpignan on the Pyrenean front Allies capture Mainz August 28 Toulon surrenders to an Anglo-Spanish expeditionary force; start of siege of Quesnoy in the Austrian Netherlands 29 Siege of Dunkirk, Austrian Netherlands, begins September 8 Battle of Hondschoote, Austrian Netherlands; siege of Dunkirk lifted 11 Allied forces accept surrender of Quesnoy 22 Battle of Truillas, on the Pyrenean front October 8 Royalist rebellion in Lyon ends 15–16 Battle of Wattignies, in the Austrian Netherlands December 19 Allies evacuate Toulon, taking Royalist civilians with them 23 Vendéan revolt ends 26 Battle of the Geisberg, on the Rhine front October 5 Battle of Maciejowice, during the Polish revolt 6 French reconquest of Guadeloupe complete 9 French troops occupy Cologne, on the Rhine November 4–5 Battle of Praga, during the Polish revolt 18 French capture Nijmegen, in Holland 26 French capture Figueras on the Pyrenean front December 10 French retake Guadeloupe 1795 January 3 Third and final partition of Poland 20 French troops occupy Amsterdam 30 French cavalry captures the Dutch fleet at Texel February 3 French troops capture Rosas on the Pyrenean front March 13–14 25 1794 April 1 20 26 29–30 British capture St. Lucia, in the West Indies British capture Guadeloupe, in the West Indies Battle of Landrecies, in the Austrian Netherlands Battle of Le Boulou, on the Pyrenean front April 5 May 11 18 23 Battle of Courtrai, in the Austrians Netherlands Battle of Tourcoing, Austrians Netherlands Battle of Tournai, Austrian Netherlands June 17 19 23 27 June 1 6 26 July 27 August 1 10 25 29 Battle of the Glorious First of June, off Ushant French assume new offensive in Italy Battle of Fleurus, Austrian Netherlands Coup of Thermidor in Paris; Robespierre executed the following day Battle of San Marcial, on the Pyrenean front British forces capture Corsica French invade Holland French retake Valenciennes 25 July 17 21 22 Battle of the Gulf of Genoa British expeditionary force to Flanders is evacuated by sea at Bremen Treaty of Basle concluded between France and Prussia French begin offensive along the river Fluvia on the Pyrenean front Battle of Belle Isle French recapture St. Lucia, in the West Indies Battle of the Ile de Groix British land French royalist troops at Quiberon Bay on the coast of France Battle of Hyères French republican forces defeat the royalists at Quiberon French and Spanish conclude peace at Basle August 1 British invade Ceylon September 6 French open offensive along the Rhine Chronology 14 British expeditionary forces conquers the Dutch Cape Colony in southern Africa October 1 France annexes Belgium 5 Bonaparte uses artillery in the streets of Paris to quell the coup of Vendémiaire 27 New French government, the Directory, takes power in Paris November 23 Battle of Loano 1796 February 14 British expeditionary force captures Dutch colony of Ceylon March 2 9 April 11 12 14–15 16–17 21 28 Bonaparte assumes command of French troops in Italy Bonaparte and Josephine marry Napoleon opens offensive on the Italian front Battle of Montenotte Second Battle of Dego Battle of Ceva Battle of Mondovi Piedmont and France conclude peace at Cherasco 7 11 17 19 24 xxxv Battle of Forcheim, Rhine front Battle of Neresheim, Rhine front Dutch surrender their fleet to British forces at Cape Colony French and Spanish conclude Treaty of San Ildefonso Battle of Friedberg, Rhine front; Battle of Amberg, Rhine front; French resume siege of Mantua September 3 Battle of Würzburg, Rhine front 4 Battle of Rovereto, Italian front 8 Battle of Bassano, Italian front October 2 8 10 19 23 Battle of Biberach, Rhine front Spain declares war on Britain Peace concluded between France and Naples Battle of Emmendlingen, Rhine front Battle of Schliengen, Rhine front November 2 French reoccupy Corsica after British evacuation 12 Battle of Caldiero, Italian front 15–17 Battle of Arcola, Italian front 17 Tsarina Catherine II of Russia dies December 22 French naval force appears off Bantry Bay on the Irish coast May 8 10 13 26 30 Action at Codogno Battle of Lodi French forces occupy Milan British troops retake St. Lucia in the West Indies Battle of Borghetto; first siege of Mantua begins June 3 4 28 British capture St. Vincent in the West Indies First Battle of Altenkirchen, Rhine front Fortress at Milan capitulates to the French July 5 9 14 31 Battle of Rastatt, Rhine front Battle of Ettlingen, Rhine front Battle of Haslach, Rhine front French abandon siege of Mantua August 3 Battle of Lonato, Italian front 5 Battle of Castiglione, Italian front 1797 January 14–15 Battle of Rivoli, Italian front February 2 Mantua surrenders to the French, Italian front 14 Battle of St. Vincent off the coast of Spain 17 British take Trinidad in the West Indies 19 Peace concluded between France and the Papal States 22 French expeditionary force lands on the Welsh coast 24 French troops in Wales capitulate April 16 17 18 Mutiny breaks out among British naval crews at Spithead Preliminary peace concluded between France and Austria at Leoben Second Battle of Altenkirchen, Rhine front xxxvi 20 May 12 15 June 15 Chronology Battle of Diersheim, Rhine front December 13 Neapolitan troops evacuate Rome Mutiny breaks out among British naval crews at the Nore End of naval mutiny at Spithead 1799 January 23 French establish the Parthenopean Republic in the former Kingdom of the Two Siclies (Naples) End of naval mutiny at the Nore February 10 French troops begin campaign in Syria French establish the Cisalpine Republic in northern Italy March 12 17 21 25 30 July 9 October 11 Battle of Camperdown between the British and Dutch naval squadrons 17 France and Austria conclude Treaty of Campo Formio 1798 May 19 24 June 12 French expeditionary force departs from Toulon bound for Egypt Outbreak of rebellion in Ireland 26 29 Battle of Magnano, Italian front Russian army under Suvorov arrives at the Italian front Battle of Cassano, Italian front Allied occupation of Milan May 20 French lift siege of Acre in Syria June 4–7 18–19 21 First Battle of Zürich, on the Swiss front Battle of the Trebbia, Italian front Battle of San Giuliano, Italian front July 15 25 Ottoman troops land in Aboukir Bay, Egypt French attack Turkish positions at Aboukir French occupy Malta en route to Egypt July 1 13 21 22 April 5 15 France declares war on Austria French besiege Acre on the Syrian coast Battle of Ostrach, Rhine front Battle of Stockach, Rhine front Battle of Verona, Italian front French expedition arrives in Egypt Battle of Shubra Khit Battle of the Pyramids French enter Cairo August 1–2 Battle of the Nile 22 French expeditionary force disembarks at Kilala Bay on the Irish coast September 8 French troops in Ireland surrender to British 9 Turkey declares war on France August 2 15 24 26 27 October 12 Battle of Donegal, off the Irish coast 30 November 19 British troops capture Minorca 23 Neapolitan forces invade central Italy 29 Neapolitan troops occupy Rome French capture Aboukir from the Turks Battle of Novi, Italian front Bonaparte leaves Egypt for France French offensive near Mannheim, Rhine front British expeditionary force disembarks from North Holland; Suvorov’s army begins march from Italy to Switzerland; Tsar Paul I forms League of Armed Neutrality against Britain British squadron seizes Dutch fleet at the Helder September 18 French surrender Mannheim, Rhine front 19 Battle of Bergen, in Holland Chronology 25–26 Second Battle of Zürich, Swiss front October 9 Bonaparte lands in France 10 By a convention with the French, Anglo-Russian forces to be withdrawn from North Holland November 9–10 Coup of Brumaire in Paris; Consulate comes to power December 25 Bonaparte appointed First Consul 1800 January 24 Convention of El Arish concluded between British and French in Egypt March 20 April 20 May 15 Battle of Heliopolis, in Egypt Allies lay siege to Genoa in northern Italy French forces enter the Great St. Bernard Pass in the Alps June 2 4 9 14 15 19 July 28 French forces occupy Milan French surrender Genoa Battle of Montebello Battle of Marengo; Kléber assassinated in Cairo Austrians conclude armistice by which they agree to evacuate northern Italy Battle of Höchstädt on the Rhine front Truce agreed between French and Austrians on the Rhine front September 5 French garrison on Malta capitulates December 3 Battle of Hohenlinden, Rhine front 16 Denmark and Sweden join Russia in League of Armed Neutrality against Britain 18 Prussia joins League of Armed Neutrality 25 French and Austrians sign armistice xxxvii 1801 January 1 Act of Union joins Ireland to Britain February 4 William Pitt, British prime minister, resigns, to be replaced by Henry Addington 8 Peace concluded between France and Austria by Treaty of Lunéville March 8 20–21 23 28 April 2 July 6, 12 15 British expeditionary force lands in Egypt Battle of Alexandria Tsar Paul I of Russia assassinated Peace concluded between France and Naples by Treaty of Florence Battle of Copenhagen First and Second Battles of Algeciras, off Spanish coast Bonaparte concludes Concordat with Pope Pius VII August 31 French army in Egypt capitulates October 1 Preliminary treaty of peace concluded by Britain and France at Amiens 1802 February 5 French expeditionary force lands in St. Domingue, in the West Indies March 25 Definitive version of Treaty of Amiens concluded August 2 Bonaparte proclaimed Consul for life October 15 French troops invade Switzerland 1803 May 2 United States agrees to purchase Louisiana Territory from France xxxviii 18 Chronology Britain declares war on Napoleon signaling start of the Napoleonic Wars 1804 January 1 St. Domingue declares independence from France, renaming itself Haiti March 21 May 18 19 Civil (Napoleonic) Code published; execution of duc d’Enghien by French authorities Napoleon proclaimed Emperor of France Napoleon establishes the Marshalate December 2 Coronation of Napoleon I, Emperor of France 12 Spain declares war on Britain 1805 April 11 November 4 Battle of Cape Ortegal, off Spanish coast 5 Battle of Amstetten, in Bavaria 11 Battle of Dürnstein, in Bavaria 12 French occupy Vienna 15 Battle of Hollabrunn, in Bavaria December 2 Battle of Austerlitz 3 Emperor Francis of Austria sues for peace 26 Treaty of Pressburg concluded between France and Austria 1806 January 23 Death of William Pitt February 6 Battle of Santo Domingo, in West Indian waters March 30 Treaty of alliance concluded between Britain and Russia June 5 May 26 July 22 Napoleon crowned King of Italy Battle of Finisterre, off French coast August 9 Austria accedes to Anglo-Russian treaty of alliance, forming the Third Coalition 26 Grande Armée leaves camps along the Channel coast and marches for the Danube 31 August Britain and Sweden conclude subsidy agreement for the supply of Swedish troops to the Third Coalition September 8 Austrian troops enter Bavaria October 3 Sweden concludes treaty of alliance with Britain, formally joining the Third Coalition 20 Austrian army under Mack surrenders at Ulm, in Bavaria 21 Battle of Trafalgar 29–31 Second Battle of Caldiero, in northern Italy Joseph Bonaparte crowned King of Naples Louis Bonaparte proclaimed King of Holland July 6 9 25 Battle of Maida, southern Italy British expeditionary force occupies Buenos Aires Creation of the Confederation of the Rhine August 6 Termination of the Holy Roman Empire October 8 10 14 17 20 27 28 French forces enter Saxony en route for Prussia Action at Saalfeld Twin battles of Jena and Auerstädt Battle of Halle French lay siege to Magdeburg Napoleon enters Berlin Prussian garrison of Prenzlau capitulates November 1 Napoleon issues Berlin Decrees 6 Blücher surrenders his forces near Lübeck 11 Fortress of Magdeburg surrenders 28 French troops enter Warsaw December 26 Battles of Pultusk and Golymin, East Prussia Chronology 1807 February 3 Battle of Jankovo, East Prussia 7–8 Battle of Eylau, East Prussia 19 British fleet enters the Dardanelles March 18 May 27 June 10–11 14 25 June 6 15 July 14 20 Danzig surrenders Battle of Heilsberg, East Prussia Battle of Friedland, East Prussia Napoleon and Tsar Alexander meet on the River Niemen France and Russian conclude peace at Tilsit France and Prussia conclude peace at Tilsit French issue ultimatum to Portugal demanding conformance with Continental System September 2–5 British naval force bombards Copenhagen October 27 France and Spain conclude Treaty of Fontainebleau November 23 Napoleon issues first Milan Decree 30 French troops enter Lisbon December 17 Napoleon issues second Milan Decree 1808 February 16 Beginning of French invasion of Spain March 17 24 King Charles IV of Spain abdicates French troops enter Madrid April 17 Conference at Bayonne opens Battle of Medina del Rio Seco French surrender at Bailén August 1 Murat becomes King of Naples; British troops land in Portugal 16 Action at Roliça 17 French abandon siege of Saragossa 21 Battle of Vimiero 22 Convention of Cintra concluded September 27 Congress of Erfurt between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander November 5 Battle of Valmeseda 10 Battles of Espinosa de los Monteros and Gamonal 23 Battle of Tudela 29–30 Action at Somosierra December 20 Second siege of Saragossa begins 21 Battle of Sahagún 29 Action at Benevente 1809 January 16 Battle of Corunna February 20 Saragossa surrenders to the French March 28 April 11–16 16 20 21 22 23 May 2 Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain First siege of Saragossa begins French lay siege to Danzig, in East Prussia July 7 9 19 xxxix Popular uprising in Madrid Battle of Medellín British naval attack on the Basque and Aix Roads Battle of Sacile, Italian front Battle of Abensberg French troops capture Landshut Battle of Eggmühl; Wellesley assumes command of British forces in Portugal Strorming of Ratisbon xl Chronology May 3 12 13 21–22 Battle of Ebersberg Battle of Oporto French occupy Vienna Battle of Aspern-Essling March 5 9 11 Battle of Barrosa Badajoz surrenders to the French Birth of a son to Napoleon and Marie Louise May June 14 Battle of Raab July 5–6 10–11 12 27–29 Battle of Wagram Battle of Znaim Austrians conclude armistice with the French Battle of Talavera 7 16 June 20 British lay siege to Badajoz Battle of Albuera French relieve Badajoz September 25 Battle of El Bodón October 14 Treaty of Schönbrunn concluded between France and Austria 1812 January 20 Wellington captures Ciudad Rodrigo November 19 Battle of Ocaña March 16 Wellington begins third siege of Badajoz December 15 Napoleon and Josephine divorce May 28 Treaty of Bucharest ends Russo-Turkish War 1810 February 5 French begin investment of Cádiz 20 Execution of Tyrolean rebel leader Andreas Hofer June 19 22 28 United States declares war on Britain Grande Armée invades Russia French occupy Vilna April 2 July Napoleon and Marie Louise of Austria marry in Paris July 1 9 Louis Bonaparte abdicates as King of Holland France annexes Holland September 27 Battle of Busaco October 10 French troops arrive before the Lines of Torres Vedras November 16 French retreat from the Lines of Torres Vedras 1811 January 26 French besiege Badajoz 8 22 25–26 28 French occupy Minsk Battle of Salamanca Battle of Ostronovo French occupy Vitebsk August 8 12 14 16–18 24 26 Battle of Inkovo Wellington enters Madrid First Battle of Krasnyi Battle of Polotsk French abandon siege of Cádiz Kutuzov appointed Russian commander-in-chief September 7 Battle of Borodino 14 French army o